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WynnThomasNew York CityNew York City"This is the city," wrote Whitman, "and I am one of the citizens"

The Spectator and the City in Nineteenth-Century American Literature.

Unreal Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1990. Spann, E.K.

"Whitman's Tale of Two Cities." American Literary History 6 (1994): 633-657. Versluys, Kristiaan.

The Poet in the City. Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1987.  New York City

New York City Chapter 4. Boston, 1860 Chapter 5. Washington, D.C. Chapter 6.

and of these the Irish formed about 45 percent; of the city's total population, 30 percent were Irish

Few realize the Irish were in America before the American Revolution and that many were involved in the

In New York City conditions were no better.

So many of them remained in the city that in 1860 New York was the most Irish city in the United States

MaireMullins"Once I Pass'd Through a Populous City" (1860)"Once I Pass'd Through a Populous City" (1860

)Originally published in the third (1860) edition of Leaves of Grass, by Thayer and Eldridge, Boston,

The poem records a visit to a crowded city and a woman "casually met there," the memory of whom takes

The last three lines of the poem shift to the present moment, when the memory of the "populous" city,

"Once I Pass'd Through a Populous City" (1860)

Whitman lived for almost three decades in Brooklyn, New York, longer than his association with any other city

of the boroughs of New York City until 1898.

In the 1820s Brooklyn's population numbered only seven thousand, and there were no streetlights or sidewalks

The city's population grew from 40,000 in 1845 to 100,000 in 1850 and to 250,000 in 1855.

in the 1860s ("Centenarian's Story").BibliographyAllen, Gay Wilson.

Ronald W.Knapp"I Dream'd in a Dream" (1860)"I Dream'd in a Dream" (1860)This is one of the poems in the

The poems in the "Calamus" collection were written to celebrate the love of man for man—"Adhesiveness

Walt Whitman: An American. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943.Cavitch, David.

Minor Prophecy: Walt Whitman's New American Religion. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1989.

"I Dream'd in a Dream" (1860)

TimothyStifelDenver, ColoradoDenver, ColoradoA city founded just east of the Rocky Mountains, Denver

City was named after James W.

Railroads connected Denver to the national economy in 1870, and the following two decades were periods

of tremendous population growth.

to replace the original log cabins of the city.

Through Charles Eldridge, the publisher of the third edition of Leaves of Grass (1860) who was serving

Thereafter, the comrades were inseparable, spending long hours riding on Doyle's streetcar, or taking

During and after the War, the city's population was swelled by Southern refugees, especially African

Americans escaping oppression and poverty.

Reveille in Washington, 1860–1865. New York: Harper, 1941.Reynolds, David S.

William G.Lulloff"Mannahatta [I was asking...]" (1860)"Mannahatta [I was asking...]" (1860)Walt Whitman's

It was first published in the third edition of Leaves of Grass (1860).

Whitman's original poem included significant closing lines that were deleted after 1871.

The earlier conclusion calls "Mannahatta" "The free city! no slaves!

"Mannahatta [I was asking...]" (1860)

Names were powerful. As Whitman indicates in An American Primer (1904), "Names are magic.

The names of American cities should reflect their physical features and life of their citizens—expressing

the essence of the cities.Some of the best names, he believed, were the ones given by Native Americans

, a second poem 1888), "Yonnondio" (1887), and "Starting from Paumanok" (1860).Native names were particularly

American Indian names and his poetry were "original," "not to be imitated—not to be manufactured . . 

buffalo grass and wild sage in the country's midlands are "North America's characteristic landscape," exceeding

he discovered an analog for his own expansive consciousness and for his idealized conception of Americans

Democratic Vistas: 1860–1880. New York: George Braziller, 1970.Whitman, Walt. Specimen Days.

AlanKozlowski["Long I Thought That Knowledge Alone Would Suffice"] (1860)["Long I Thought That Knowledge

Alone Would Suffice"] (1860)This twelve-line poem appeared only in the 1860 Leaves of Grass "Calamus

City"; both in manuscript form refer to the beloved as a man, though "Once I Pass'd" was revised to

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1992. 185–205.Killingsworth, M. Jimmie.

["Long I Thought That Knowledge Alone Would Suffice"] (1860)

James E., Jr.Miller'Children of Adam' [1860]'Children of Adam' [1860]Originally entitled "Enfans d'Adam

" in the 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass, this cluster of poems celebrating sexuality was called "Children

For their act of disobedience, they were cast out of the Garden of Eden.

Fool'd," "I Am He That Aches with Amorous Love," "Once I Pass'd through a Populous City," "I Heard You

'Children of Adam' [1860]

emigrating to America in numbers exceeded only by the Irish.

Swedes and Danes were also emigrating but in smaller proportions.

Concurrently, industry and commerce were transforming the Scandinavian countries.

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1995. 357–362.Anderson, Carl L. "Whitman in Sweden."

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1995. 339–351.Naess, Harald. Knut Hamsun og Amerika.

the Molly Maguires, the great railroad strike of 1877, the use of federal troops against civilian Americans

, the riots of the unemployed in Tompkins Square, New York, and, in Whitman's home city of Camden, the

sufferings of working people, Whitman had come to fear that the intractable problems of the Old World were

entry from February 1879 in which Whitman is astonished by the sight of three "quite good-looking American

Chants Democratic: New York City & the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788–1850.

described by one Whitman biographer as "unlovely," an appropriate term for the late-twentieth-century city

But during Whitman's residence in Camden from 1873 to 1892, the city was still young and growing, vigorous

This is one reason why Whitman gradually formed a strong attachment to his adopted city.

Gas street lamps were first lit in 1852, tracks were laid down for horse-drawn streetcars, and a waterworks

Walt Whitman: An American. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943.

My first impressions, architectural, &c. were not favorable; but upon the whole, the city, the spaces,

Culture (Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press, 1992), 8. x  The city’s monuments were of special

The possibilities for African American life were unresolved at this time, as were the possibilities for

Washington’s black population tripled by 1870, jumping from 19 percent of the city’s total population

Mapping American Culture. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press, 1992. French, R. W.

Review, TheWestminster Review, TheAmong the powerful arbiters of taste in nineteenth-century England were

These popular British magazines were often pirated in American editions.

periodicals in his editorial pages reveals that ideas which some have thought he picked up from American

Whitman's enthusiasm for the Westminster Review during the 1850s, the attack on his poems in the October 1860

A defense of Leaves of Grass in the Brooklyn City News on 10 October was almost certainly written by

William A.PannapackerPhiladelphia, PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PennsylvaniaKnown as the Quaker City and

the City of Brotherly Love, Philadelphia should have sounded promising to Walt Whitman, an admirer of

With over a million inhabitants in 1890, Philadelphia was the third most populous city in the United

The relationship between the two cities was reminiscent of what he had known in Brooklyn and Manhattan

From 1882 until his death, most of Whitman's American publications were handled in Philadelphia by David

1718 by Jean Baptiste Lemoine, Sieur de Boinville, New Orleans has been the largest, most important city

three-sided bend of the Mississippi River as it reaches the Gulf of Mexico—hence its name "The Crescent City

As people of means and social standing were later drawn to the new land of opportunity, a Creole society

Battle of New Orleans in 1815 and the Mexican War (1846–1848) highlighted the significance of the city

Still others see further evidence in "Once I Pass'd through a Populous City," in which Whitman penned

his reform activities as the editor of a temperance newspaper and subsequently as secretary to the American

In 1855 Clapp was among those arrested in New York City while attending a meeting of the Free Love League

The two were close in age and congenial in their political sympathies.

Clapp's journal folded in 1860.

"The Literary Bohemians of New York City in the Mid-Nineteenth Century." Diss. St. John's U, 1977.

American poetic expression, he advocated, should use all slang terms, including bad as well as good.

The masses would be most influential in determining the nature of the American language.

Some critics argue that his use of slang declined after 1860 and 1865.

Whitman and the American Idiom. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1991.Folsom, Ed.

"Whitman and Language: Great Beginnings for Great American Poetry." Mt.

of the City of Brook- lyn for 1856, 1858–1859, and 1859–1860, and the Charter for the City of Brooklyn

[Henry Clapp Jr.], “Walt Whitman and American Art,” SP, June 30, 1860. 43.

“Walt Whitman and American Art,” SP, June 30, 1860. 3.

design decision equivalent to nakedness—in 1860 the poems were titled, and many were arranged into thematic

Kenny, Daniel J.The American Newspaper Directory and Record of the Press for 1860.

Along the way there were further refinements.

In other instances, individual poems that were numbered under cluster headings were later given titles

," whose distinctive title was dropped after 1860, with the poems distributed.

Triggs's textual variants were more comprehensive than McKay's, but were similarly marred by omissions

Blodgett were to edit the variorum text.

Robert K.Martin"City of Orgies" (1860)"City of Orgies" (1860)This "Calamus" poem, which acquired its

present title in 1867, was originally called by its first line, "City of my walks and joys!

," when published as number 18 in the "Calamus" series in 1860.

The Homosexual Tradition in American Poetry. Austin: U of Texas P, 1979. Miller, Edwin Haviland.

"City of Orgies" (1860)

as he was anxious to absorb Native American words into American English, so was he determined to absorb

a Native American presence into American poetry.

self-determination and self-definition even while it reenacts the American usurpation of Native American

frontier history, as "cities, farms, factories fade," and a "misty, strange tableaux" appears, populated

Whitman believed that one job of the poet, then, was to give Native Americans lines in the evolving American

C.D.AlbinWest, The AmericanWest, The AmericanFor Walt Whitman, the American West represented a point

who would become the collective progenitors of his golden American future.

Frontier: American Literature and the American West. By Fussell.

Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth. By Smith.

West, The American

To the 178 lines of the original, Whitman had added 27 lines by 1860, when the poem reached its maximum

But the changes are so radical that the 1855–1860 text is in some important ways a different kind of

Whitman and the American Idiom. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1991. Knapp, Bettina L.

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1994. 120–132. Whitman, Walt.

Leaves of Grass: Facsimile Edition of the 1860 Text. Ed. Roy Harvey Pearce.

When Mexico reasserted abolition in 1829, North American slave owners in the United States and in Texas

A youth not seventeen years old seiz'd his assassin till two more came to release him, / The three were

The city was the gateway to Mexico; Whitman recalled "the crowds of soldiers, the gay young officers,

American identity must include Spanish as well as "our aboriginal or Indian population—the Aztec in the

Mexico City: Málaga, 1971.Whitman, Walt. The Gathering of the Forces. Ed.

) in the new forty-five poem "Calamus" section of the 1860 .

The ninth poem ("I dreamed in a dream of a city where all the men were like brothers"), consisting of

(among which, revised and reordered, were the "Live Oak" poems).

Martin (Iowa City: Univ. of Iowa Press, 1992), p. 186.

Ed Folsom (Iowa City: Univ. of Iowa Press, 1994), p. 175.

filial love, and political concord.This is the only complete poem added in any edition to the original 1860

It replaced two poems not included after the 1860 edition: ["Long I Thought That Knowledge Alone Would

that focus into the finalè of ever-enlarging circles of social cohesion, bonding family members, cities

be seen as an example of an often-noted tendency in successive editions of Leaves (especially after 1860

The Homosexual Tradition in American Poetry. Austin: U of Texas P, 1979.Miller, James E., Jr.

Charles B.GreenLibraries (New York)Libraries (New York)The earliest libraries in New York City existed

books in Trinity Church, recorded in 1698 and considered the first known nonprofit library, there were

Many of its first directors were also involved in the founding of King's College in 1754, which would

Whitman, of course, left New York City in the early 1860s and so would not have used the libraries that

Encyclopedia of New York City. New Haven: Yale UP, 1995.Keep, Austin Baxter.

Conrad M.Sienkiewicz"Here the Frailest Leaves of Me" (1860)"Here the Frailest Leaves of Me" (1860)"Here

Such expressions were dangerous in Whitman's day.

These poems were strong, however, because they were the honest songs of a bold and confident singer.

American Studies 19.2 (1978): 5–22.Helms, Alan. "'Hints . . .

"Here the Frailest Leaves of Me" (1860)

has been felt most notably by the futurists Velimir Khlebnikov and Vladimir Mayakovsky.The third (1860

When part of this review was translated and published in the American journal Critic (16 June 1883),

poems of 1860 illuminate the Russian revolution of 1905.Russian futurists enjoyed Whitman.

Other poets of the period who learned from Whitman were Mikhail Larionov and Ivan Oredezh.D.S.

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1995.Basic, Sonja. "Walt Whitman in Yugoslavia."

Steven P.Schneider"Poets to Come" (1860)"Poets to Come" (1860)"Poets to Come" was first published as

number 14 of "Chants Democratic" in the 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass.

opening "Inscriptions" section of Leaves of Grass in 1881.In this poem Whitman addresses future American

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1992.Whitman, Walt. Leaves of Grass. Ed. Sculley Bradley and Harold W.

"Poets to Come" (1860)

and the Sequel to Drum-Taps (1865–1866), the first of at least four different formats of the text were

separately paginated books stitched together between two covers: a vastly re-edited version of the 1860

"], "Leaves of Grass" number 3 [later "Aboard at a Ship's Helm"], "When I Read the Book," and "The City

of this edition, "Starting from Paumanok," Whitman modifies the autobiographical references in the 1860

Called Songs Before Parting, this coda resonates with the same federalizing motifs that were rife in

eleven of which would eventually form the Southern Confederacy, along with four border states, the American

While Whitman and his brother enjoyed the atmosphere of the famed Southern city, the position at the

Whitman's political views were controversial, and somewhat of an embarrassment to McClure, who became

essentially three: "I Saw in Louisiana a Live-Oak Growing," "Once I Pass'd through a Populous City,"

South, The American

Intimate Script and the New American Bible: "Calamus" and the Making of the 1860 Chapter 5.

Walt Whitman is thus of the first generation of Americans who were born in the newly formed United States

In Whitman's school, all the students were in the same room, except African Americans, who had to attend

The published versions of his New Orleans poem called "Once I Pass'd Through a Populous City" seem to

But the exotic nature of the Southern city was not without its horrors: slaves were auctioned within

Martin K.Doudna"Broadway Pageant, A" (1860)"Broadway Pageant, A" (1860)This occasional poem first appeared

as "A Broadway Pageant (Reception Japanese Embassy, 16 June 1860)."

American Literature 27 (1955): 403–405.Smith, Henry Nash.

Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth. 1950.

"Broadway Pageant, A" (1860)

reception.Whitman's hope to create "new formulas, international poems" amounted to a new program in American

secret treaties and diplomacy of the reactionary European powers of his period.Thus, the foremost American

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1995.Erkkila, Betsy. Walt Whitman Among the French: Poet and Myth.

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1995.____.

Breaking Bounds: Walt Whitman and American Cultural Studies. Ed. Betsy Erkkila and Jay Grossman.

Though Whitman's ideas on education were unpopular in his time, they were influenced by his own formal

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1994. 88–102. Grier, Edward F.

Miller 'Children of Adam' [1860] Originally entitled "Enfans d'Adam" in the 1860 edition of , this cluster

Fool'd," "I Am He That Aches with Amorous Love," "Once I Pass'd through a Populous City," "I Heard You

Gas street lamps were first lit in 1852, tracks were laid down for horse-drawn streetcars, and a waterworks

RichardRaleigh"When I Heard at the Close of the Day" (1860)"When I Heard at the Close of the Day" (1860

)Published initially as "Calamus" poem number 11 in the 1860 edition of Leaves, "When I Heard at the

Walt Whitman and the American Reader. New York: Cambridge UP, 1990.Helms, Alan.

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1992. 185–205.Killingsworth, M. Jimmie.

"When I Heard at the Close of the Day" (1860)

In reality, in 1856, when those lines were written, Moncure Conway had in fact detected a guarded expression

puzzled at himself, or in "Calamus" number 9 that "I am ashamed—but it is useless—I am what I am" (1860

All too soon he saw Vaughan "content himself without me" ("Calamus" number 9, 1860 Leaves).

America's acceptance of his dream of a "new city of Friends" ("I Dream'd in a Dream"), where other men

Whitman's Manuscripts: "Leaves of Grass" (1860). Ed. Fredson Bowers. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1955.

Whitman and Leaves, three women wrote, in Henry Clapp's Saturday Press, defending Whitman's third (1860

Adah Menken also lauded Whitman's thinking and writing in 1860, and Eliza Farnham quoted Whitman in her

A bedrock tenet in Whitman's concept of American democracy was his belief in each person's having the

In the 1856 and 1860 editions of Leaves, the public images become more pronounced.

City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789–1860. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1987.Traubel, Horace.

JanWhittLeaves of Grass Imprints (1860)Leaves of Grass Imprints (1860)In 1860 Thayer and Eldridge of

The imprints were available at no cost to prospective buyers, and the company used them as a unique promotion

literary historians, it was a collection of reviews summarizing his critical reception from 1855 to 1860

Walt Whitman and the American Reader. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990.Zweig, Paul.

Leaves of Grass Imprints (1860)

Conrad M.Sienkiewicz"Recorders Ages Hence" (1860)"Recorders Ages Hence" (1860)"Recorders Ages Hence"

was first published in the 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass.

American Studies 19.2 (1978): 5–22.Killingsworth, M. Jimmie.

The Homosexual Tradition in American Poetry. Austin: U of Texas P, 1979.Whitman, Walt.

"Recorders Ages Hence" (1860)

In the 1860 edition it became number 2 of the "Chants Democratic," and it acquired its final title in

excised two substantial passages, one describing the "full-sized men, / Men taciturn yet loving" (1860

Leaves)—as the ideal embodiment of American manhood.

American Imago 25 (1968): 354–370.Thomas, M. Wynn. The Lunar Light of Whitman's Poetry.

Leaves of Grass: Facsimile Edition of the 1860 Text. Ed. Roy Harvey Pearce.

–61 edition of Leaves of Grass. although the book was published in 1860, Whitman dated it “1860–61” so

________ ( 30 ) IX I dreamed in a dream of a city where all the men were like brothers, o I saw them

They were also taken at a time when greater public re- straints were being placed on the popularand primarily

to city, and land to land across the 46 universe.

“Whitman and the Gay american ethos.”

RichardRaleigh"Not Heat Flames Up and Consumes" (1860)"Not Heat Flames Up and Consumes" (1860)Appearing

All twelve poems of the sequence were included among the forty-five poems of the 1860 "Calamus," but

taken from the sequence and dropped after 1860.

Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 1992. 185–205.Whitman, Walt. Walt Whitman's Poems. Ed.

"Not Heat Flames Up and Consumes" (1860)

Junior temperance groups were organized for children, warning them to "beware of the first glass."

Contributions in American History 83. Wesport, Conn: Greenwood, 1979.Holloway, Emory.

The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. New York: Oxford UP; 1979.Tyrrell, Ian R.

Sobering Up: From Temperance to Prohibition in Antebellum America, 1800–1860.

Contributions in American History 82. Wesport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1979.Whitman, Walt.

In 1848, Whitman accepted a position at the New Orleans Crescent, moving to the city at a time of intense

states overthrew their leaders, and over fifty smaller revolutions broke out.Although the revolutions were

He even included biblical allusions in "Resurgemus" to highlight his belief that the revolutions were

renamed "Poem of The Dead Young Men of Europe, The 72d and 73d Years of These States" in 1856, and in 1860

European Revolutions and the American Literary Renaissance. New Haven: Yale UP, 1988.Whitman, Walt.