Cultural Geography Scrapbook

PUBLISHERS' NOTICE.

THE object of this work is to furnish a Geographical and Historical View of the World in a condensed form, suited, as a Book of Reference, to the use of Families, Merchants, Editors, Travelers, and the great mass of general readers.

The Author is the oldest, and, universally acknowledged, one of the most entertaining and reliable Geographers and Historians now living. Under the name of Peter Parley he is very favorably known to the masses of society, and his writings are "Familiar in their mouths as household words." This is his last, best work, in which he gives, in connection with the Geography of the World, an interesting and authentic History of Every Important Event that has transpired from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time.

It contains 272 quarto pages, illustrated with 200 Engravings, and 80 Maps of divisions, sub-divisions, and cities, prepared expressly for this work, and given in connection with the text which they illustrate.

It gives valuable statistics of the different countries up to the present time, not elsewhere to be found.

It contains the last Census of the United States, attached separately to the Geography and History of Each State.

The whole matter is arranged in a convenient and systematic form, for easy reference, the headings of the different subjects being in large type, so as to immediately attract the eye.

It contains a Geographical Description of every country on the globe.

It gives a Historical Outline of every country, Ancient as well as Modern. It contains an Outline of the Ancient Geography of every country, illustrated by full Ancient Maps.

When the mind is filled with a geographical [cut away]tion of a country, a curiosity to know its histo[cut away]riably arises; and under the excitement the latter[cut away] with vivid interest. The impression is therefore [cut away] and likely to be durable; the history serving, b[cut away] associations, to rivet the geography more firmly [cut away] memory. When reading the geographical acc[cut away] Mesopotamia, for instance, to learn in the same [cut away]tion that this is the country where the descen[cut away] Noah dwelt—that here was the Tower of Ba[cut away] the confusion of Tongues—that here was the [cut away] Babylon, founded by Nimrod, embellished by Se[cut away] perfected by Nebuchadnezzar, and conquered b[cut away]ander, will certainly add an interest to the subj[cut away] tend to impress the facts permanently upon th[cut away] We are never satisfied with learning what a co[cut away] without knowing how it became what it is; w[cut away] look upon a scene but the inquiry arises, "What ha[cut away]pired there?"

It is believed that no work has ever before co[cut away] these advantages of numerous maps in immediate [cut away] with the description of countries to which they [cut away] with the union of History and Geography—and [cut away] topics systematically and conspicuously arranged [cut away]venient reference.

In the back part is a copious Index, containing [cut away] Geographical and Historical Names in the wor[cut away] the pages upon which they are respectively tre[cut away] placed directly opposite, and the names divided [cut away]cented, so as to form a systematic and accurat[cut away]graphical and Historical Pronouncing Dictionary.

It is, unquestionably, one of the most valuable [cut away] for the library that has ever been issued. It has r[cut away] the highest encomiums of scientific men in Eur[cut away] America, as well as the most flattering notices of the [cut away]

[cut away]ANCIENT AND MODERN

Dr. Boynton's Second Lecture.

Dr. Boynton gave the second of his brilliant course of lectures last night, to another large audience, at the Atheneum, every seat being occupied, and the aisles and gallery crowded. He commenced the history of the earth's formation by showing that there was no discrepancy between Genesis and Geology. The earth was at first a melted mass of rock, produced by chemical action and condensation. Wherever there is a combination of different elements heat is produced. This melted mass, suspended in space, and surrounded by a cold atmosphere, began to cool and form an outer solid crust. This crust composed the granite rock, and was crystalized in cooling. When the earth was in this highly heated condition, the water now on its surface was driven off and existed in the form of vapor: hence the vapor would obscure the central mass and "darkness would be upon the face of the deep." As the earth cooled and formed a crust, this vapor condensed and formed the waters of the oceans. All bodies contract by cooling: the crust of the earth by cooling, contracted, forming wrinkles, producing elevations and depressions. This contraction was illustrated by a wand, which being held in both hands and bent like a bow, when one portion was pressed towards the centre an opposite elevation was produced. By this process and the pressure produced by this contraction on melted masses in the interior of the earth, these melted masses must find vent—hence the bursting out of volcanoes, and the elevation of continents and lands.

If we bury a thermometer fifty feet below the surface of the earth, the mercury will remain at the same point the year round, in winter and in summer, showing that the influence of the sun does not reach below that depth. If we carry the thermometer fifty feet lower, the mercury will rise one degree, and will rise in the same ratio for every fifty feet we go down. It can easily be calculate at what depth all known substances will melt. This would not exceed fifty miles. It was Dr. Boynton's own opinion that the crust did not exceed fifteen miles. It will thus be seen that the crust (or solid part) of the earth is exceedingly thin, in proportion to the size of the egg. With a crust so thin, constantly cooling and producing a pressure upon the interior masses, it is not strange that the bed of oceans should be elevated and form dry land, and continents should sink and form the beds of oceans. As to the depth of seas and oceans, in proportion to the general diameter of the earth, it was not more than would be the vapor left by breathing once on a metal globe 80 inches in diameter. Large mountains have been elevated in a single day, and whole cities have been sunk in the same space of time: The side of a volcanic mountain once broke away, and the liquid mass flowed out, forming a river twelve miles wide, which in its course melted down hills six hundred feet high and filling up valleys six hundred feet deep, and spreading over a surface of eleven hundred square miles.

On the Island of Owyhee there is a volcano now in active operation, the crater of which is three miles wide. In illustration of the subject, Dr. Boynton exhibited three beautiful paintings—the first of which was that of a volcano bursting from the water in the Mediterranean; the second was the same volcano with the fires gone out; the last was the great volcano of Owyhee. These were exceedingly beautiful, and elicited hearty applause from all present. The next lecture will be given tomorrow night.

which a certain check would be placed on the abuse of privilege.

The same reasons do not apply to the provision in regard to the previous residence of the parties within the district. On the contrary, it seems very necessary to prevent the sudden irruption of a couple into the district of the Registrar, for no purpose but that of marriage—and for this reason, among others, that if parties resident at a distance, and utterly unknown to the neighbourhood before or afterwards, were entitled to use the Register, the benefit of its publicity would be, to a great extent, neutralized, and it would not afford the necessary protection against double marriages.

We had intended to close these remarks by an account of the proposed system of Registration of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, and the machinery contemplated by the statute. But our limits are already exhausted. We shall onl[illegible] observe in leaving the subject, that we hope that both the details and the principles of these measures will be extensively and thoroughly canvassed. There may perhaps be various points of expression, arrangement, or enactment, in which they admit of improvement. We are not without the hope that our next County Meetings, and General Assemblies, will be found quietly canvassing the details of a great national question, with a single and patriotic desire for the social welfare of the people, unterrified by the shadows of coming assessments, or the bugbear of the imagined influence of dissent. It is a subject on which both classes are well entitled to be heard, and to have their deliberate and temperate opinions considered with attention and respect. But if they sink the influence they should possess, in unreasoning and ignorant clamour, they cannot wonder, if stranded by the passing current of public opinion and enlightened legislation, they find their remonstrances fall unheeded on the wearied ears of public men, and their narrow conceptions turned into weapons against them, by those who wish their downfal.

IN the history of Astronomical Discovery there shine no brighter names than those of Sir William and Sir John Herschel—the father and the son. It is rare that the intellectual mantle of the parent lights upon the child. By no culture, however skilful, and no anxieties, however earnest, can we transmit to our successors the qualities or the capacities of the mind. The eagle eye, the active limb, the giant frame, and the "form divine,"—the gifts of our mortal being, are frequently conveyed by natural descent, and may be numbered even among the rights of primogeniture; but the higher developments of reason and fancy, the bright coruscations of the soul, have never been ranked among the claims or the accidents of birth. The gifts of fortune which we inherit or acquire, have been placed more immediately at our disposal, and in many cases have been handed down unimpaired to distant generations; but Providence has reserved for its own distribution, those transcendental powers which give omnipotence to genius, and constitute its possessor the high priest of nature, or the vicegerent of Heaven. In a destiny so lofty, the father and the son have been rarely associated; and in the very few cases in which a joint commission has been issued to them, it has generally been to work in different spheres, or at different levels. In the universe of mind, the phenomenon of a double star is more rare than its prototype in the firmament, and when it does appear we watch its phases and its mutations with a corresponding interest. The case of the two Herschels is a remarkable one, and may appear an exception to our general law. The father, however, was not called to the survey of the heavens till he had passed the middle period of life, and it was but a just arrangement, that the son, in his youth and manhood, should continue and complete the labours of his sire. The records of Astronomy do not emblazon a more glorious day than that, in which the semidiurnal arc of the father was succeeded by the semidiurnal arc of the son. No sooner had the evening luminary disappeared amid the gorgeous magnificence of the west, than the morning star arose, bright and cloudless in its appointed course.

It has long been a subject of regret to the astronomical world, that in our language no extended account has yet been published of the life and discoveries of Sir William Herschel. With the exception of a short Biographical Memoir, * and a popular abstract of his astronomical observations on

and by means of a micrometer for taking the angle of position, described at the end of the paper, he obtained measures of its angle of position with the same fixed star. Although M. Messier, to whom Mr. Herschel communicated his observations, and who had with some difficulty observed it, speaks of it in his reply as a star or a comet, yet neither of them suspected it to be a planet. Mr. Herschel, indeed, himself speaks of it as "a moving star, which he was happy to surrender to the care of the Astronomer Royal and others."

Before the close of the year 1781, Mr. Herschel, in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks, announced to the Royal Society, that, "by the observations of the most eminent astronomers in Europe, the new star which he had the honour of pointing out to them in March, 1781, is a primary planet of our Solar System;" and in gratitude to his Majesty George III., "to whose unlimited bounty he owed everything," he gave it the name of the GEORGIUM SIDUS, a compliment which astronomers in every part of the world have refused to pay. La Lande, and others, gave it the more appropriate name of Herschel; but the uniformity of astronomical nomenclature demanded another name, and the appellation of Uranus, sanctioned by more recent discussions, was given to the new planet.

This important discovery, by which the limits of the Solar System were extended to nearly double their former amount, was hailed by the astronomers of every country, and the highest expectations were formed of the future labours of Mr. Herschel. The Royal Society of London elected him a Fellow of their body. His Majesty George III. did himself the honour of granting him a salary of £300 a year, so as to enable him to devote his time to astronomical research; and all the scientific bodies in Europe successively admitted him into the list of their members.

With the fine telescopes in his possession, Mr. Herschel began, in October, 1781, to make a series of observations on the light, diameter, and magnitude of the new planet; and in his paper on this subject read at the Royal Society on the 7th December, 1782, he described the dark and lucid disc and periphery micrometers by which these observations were made. With this apparatus, by means of which one eye, looking into the telescope, throws the magnified image of a planet or comet upon, or near, lucid discs seen by the other eye, he found the diameter of the Georgium Sidus to be four seconds; and from the distance of the planet from the Sun, as calculated and sent to him by La Lande (18˙913—that of the Earth being 1), he found its diameter to be 4˙454 times that of the earth.

The researches of Mr. Herschel on the Parallax of the Fixed Stars, which we have already mentioned, were chiefly of a speculative nature, and the result of them was published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1782. The method first pointed out by Galileo, and followed by Flamstead and Bradley, of measuring the zenith distances of two stars, was regarded by Mr. Herschel as liable to various sources of error; and he was of opinion that though Bradley regarded the maximum parallax as not exceeding 1", yet "the stars of the first magnitude might still have a parallax of several seconds." The method which he substituted, and which had been originally suggested by Galileo, in his Systema Cosmicum, consisted in employing two stars as near to each other as possible, and differing as much in magnitude as could be found, and determining their exact place at the two opposite points of the earth's annual orbit. The parallax of the stars was then to be computed by a theory founded on probabilities, and involving the two postulates: 1. That the stars are, "one with another, about the size of the sun; and, 2. That the difference of their apparent magnitudes is owing to their different distances;" so that a star of the second, third, or fourth magnitude is two, three, or four times as far off as one of the first. This method, ingenious as it is, has not led to any results on which confidence can be placed. The postulates which it involves were contrary to all analogy, and have been completely disproved by the only measures of parallax which have been recently obtained. But, like many other speculations, the attempt to prove or to apply them led to results more important than those which they directly contemplated. In searching for double stars suitable for his purpose, Mr. Herschel was led to the formation of those magnificent catalogues of double stars by which he enriched astronomy, and those interesting results respecting the movements and periods of binary systems, which now form the most interesting portion of sidereal astronomy.

To us who are in possession of the researches on double stars, which we owe to Mr. Herschel and his son, to Sir James South and M. Struve, it is interesting to mark the first steps in this great inquiry. "I took pains," says Mr. Herschel, "to find out what double stars have been recorded by astronomers; but my situation permitted me not to consult extensive libraries, nor indeed was it very

material. For as I intended to view the heavens myself, Nature—that great volume—appeared to me to contain the best catalogue upon this occasion. However, I remembered that the star in the head of Castor, that in the breast of the Virgin, and the first star in Aries, had been mentioned by Cassini as double stars. I also found that the nebula in Orion was marked in Huygens' Systema Saturnium as containing seven stars, three of which (now known to be four) are very near together. With this small stock I began, and, in the course of a few years' observations, have collected the stars contained in my catalogue. I find, with great pleasure, that a very excellent observer (Mr. Pigott) has also, though unknown to me, met with three of those stars that will be found in my catalogue; and upon this occasion, I also beg leave to observe, that the Astronomer-Royal showed me, among other objects, a Hercules as a double-star, which he had discovered some years ago. The Rev. Mr. Hornsby also, in a conversation on the subject of the stars that have a proper motion, mentioned π Bootis as a double star. It is a little hard upon young astronomers to be obliged to discover over again what has already been discovered. However, the pleasure that attended the view when I first saw these stars, has made some amends for not knowing they had been seen before me." *

Mr. Herschel's first Catalogue of Double Stars was read at the Royal Society on the 10th January, 1787. It contains 269 double stars, 227 of which had not been noticed by any other person. It gives the comparative size of the stars, their colour, their distances (as measured by a Lamp Micrometer, † exhibiting two movable lights, with whose distance seen by the unassisted eye the distance of the stars seen in the telescope was compared), their angle of position, and the dates of the observation. The catalogue, which is divided into six classes, contains not only double stars, but also those that are triple, double-double, quadruple, double-triple, and multiple.

Mr. Herschel had now removed to Datchet, near Windsor, where he carried on his observations under the immediate patronage of the King, with new zeal and corresponding success. Towards the end of 1782, he completed his interesting paper—"On the proper motion of the Sun and the Solar System, with an account of several changes that have happened among the fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamstead." In this paper, he notices, 1. The stars that have been lost, or undergone some capital change since Flamstead’s time; 2. Those that have changed their magnitude; 3. Those that have newly become visible; and the results which he obtained were drawn from a review of all the stars in Flamstead's catalogue, as far as the 12th magnitude, "to the amount of a great many thousands of stars." Those changes which arise from a proper motion of the star, and a variation of magnitude, he suspects may be owing to every star in the heavens being more or less in motion; some, especially in slow motions, arising from their revolving around a large opaque body,—the stars undergoing occasional occultation, or presenting to us large spots in their rotatory movements. Hence he is led to believe, what Tobias Mayer had previously maintained, that the Sun and Solar System have analogous motions, and are advancing to a certain part of the heavens; and he found that this part was in the constellation Hercules, near the star λ, or a point somewhat further to the north.

Having finished in the year 1783, a very good twenty-feet reflector, with a large aperture, he employed it in studying the remarkable luminous spots at the pole of the planet Mars; and he published the results of his observations in the Philosophical Transactions of 1784. By means of these spots, he found that the axis of Mars was inclined to the ecliptic 59° 42', and that its node was in 17° 47' of Pisces, and he determined the ratio of its polar and equatorial diameters to be as 15 to 16.

Towards the end of 1784, Mr. Herschel completed a second catalogue, containing 434 double stars; and in June, 1784, and February, 1785, he communicated to the Royal Society two papers "On the Construction of the Heavens." By means of his twenty feet telescope, with an aperture of 18 7-10 inches, and placed meridionally, he resolved into stars the nebulæ discovered by Messier and Mechain, and also part of the Milky Way; and he discovered no fewer than 466 new nebulae and clusters of stars, which were not within the reach of the best common telescopes then in use. In pursuing these observations, he was led to the remarkable speculation, founded wholly on optical considerations, that as the Milky Way "seemed to encompass the whole heavens," it might be regarded as an immense cluster of stars; and that our sun, with his system of planets, was in all probability placed within it, but "perhaps not in the very centre of its thickness." In order to determine the sun's place in this sidereal stratum, he gauged the heavens, or ascer-

image of every considerable star became triangular, throwing out long flaming caustics at the angles. Having on one occasion supported the speculum simply against a flat-board, at an elevation of about 45°, he found that its performance was tolerably good; but on stretching a thin pack-thread vertically down the middle of the board, so as to bring the weight of the metal to rest upon this thread, the images of stars were lengthened horizontally "to a preposterous extent, and all distinct vision utterly destroyed by the division of the mirror into two lobes, each retaining something of its parabolic figure, separated by a vertical band in a state of distortion, and of no figure at all!" The method which Sir John found the best was the following:—Between the mirror and the back of the case he interposed 6 or 8 folds of thick woollen baize, or blanketing, of uniform thickness and texture, stitched together at their edges. The metal, when laid flat on this bed, was shaken so as to be concentric with the rim of the case, and two supports, composed of several strips of similar baize, were introduced so as to occupy about 30° each, and to leave an arc of about 40° unoccupied opposite the point which was to be the lowermost in the tube. When the case is raised into an inclined position, and slightly shaken, the mirror takes its own free bearing on these supports, and preserves its figure. It is essential, however, to the successful application of this method that many thicknesses of the baize or blanket should be employed, by which only the effect of flexure in the wooden back itself of the case can be eliminated." As the woollen fibres, however, lose their elasticity, the baize should be occasionally taken out, and beaten or shaken up. ✺

In conducting his observations with these fine instruments, Sir John Herschel observed several curious optical effects, arising from peculiar conditions of the atmosphere, incident to the climate of the Cape. In the hot season, from October to March, but particularly during the latter months of that season, "the nights are for the most part superb" at a few miles' distance from the mountains; but occasionally during the excessive heat and dryness of the sandy plains, the "optical tranquillity of the air" is greatly disturbed. In some cases the images of the stars are violently dilated into nebular balls or puffs of upwards of 15´ in diameter. At the end of March, 1834, for example, when Saturn and γ Virginis were both in the field of the 20 feet reflector, "it could not have been told which was the planet and which the star." On other occasions, the stars form "soft, quiet, round pellets of 3´ or 4´ diameter, resembling planetary nebulæ, and quite unlike the spurious discs which they present when not defined. In other cases, these pellets are seen to arise "from an infinitely rapid vibratory movement of the central point in all possible directions," the luminous discs presenting singular phenomena when thrown out of focus, by pushing the eye-piece further in or pulling it further out than its principal focus. *

In the cooler months, from May to October, and especially in June and July, the state of the air is habitually good, and after heavy rains have ceased for a day or two, the tranquillity of the image and the sharpness of vision, is such, that hardly any limit is set to magnifying power, but that which arises from the aberration of the specula. On occasions like these, optical phenomena of extraordinary splendour are produced by viewing a bright star through diaphragms of card-board or zinc, pierced in regular patterns of circular holes by machinery. These phenomena, arising from the interferences of the intromitted rays, and produced less perfectly in a moderate state of the air, surprise and delight every person that sees them. A result of a more valuable kind is obtained when the aperture of the telescope has the form of an equilateral triangle, the centre of which coincides with the centre of the speculum. When close double stars are viewed with the telescope, having a diaphragm of this form, the discs of the two stars which are exact circles, are reduced to about a third of their size, and have a clearness and perfection almost incredible. These discs, however, are accompanied with six luminous radiations running from them at angles of 60°, forming perfectly straight, delicate, brilliant lines, like brightly illuminated threads, running far out beyond the field of view, and, what is singular, capable of being followed like real appendages to the star long after the star itself has left the field. Another optical phenomenon, arising from a peculiar condition of the atmosphere, is described by Sir John Herschel as a "nebulous haze." The effect of it is to encircle every star, of the 9th magnitude and upwards,

with a faint sphere of light of an extent proportioned to the brightness of the star. This phenomenon presents itself very suddenly in a perfectly clear sky, free from the slightest suspicion of cloud, and disappears as suddenly, lasting sometimes only for one or two minutes. Sir John Herschel states that similar nebular affections occur in our English climate, but with much less frequency and suddenness in their appearance and disappearance. He at first suspected that the phenomena arose from dew upon the eye-piece, but repeated examination satisfied him that its origin was really atmospheric. In studying the polarization of the atmosphere, the writer of this article has had occasion frequently to observe what appears to be the result of the same cause. When the sky was of a fine blue colour, and free from clouds, and the degree of polarization, as indicated by the Polarimeter, ✺ very great, a sudden change frequently took place without any apparent cause; sometimes near the horizon and not at considerable altitudes, and sometimes at considerable altitudes and not near the horizon. On some occasions the effect was limited in its extent, and of a temporary kind. When it was not temporary, it showed itself in a diminution of the blue tint of the sky, which is invariably accompanied with a diminished polarization, and the whiteness of the sky often increased till clouds were produced, terminating in rain. The cause of these phenomena was doubtless a sudden secretion of aqueous vapour, sometimes local and of a limited extent, and quickly re-absorbed; and at other times general, and terminating in a change of weather. When a cloud passed over a track of perfectly blue sky, without occasioning any perceptible diminution of tint, the polarization of the part of the sky over which it passed was always diminished, owing, no doubt, to its having left in its path a quantity of aqueous vapour.

The description of phenomena, and the tabulated observations contained in the interesting volume now before us, occupy seven chapters, extending over 450 closely printed pages, and are illustrated with seventeen beautifully executed plates, some of which are of a very great size. The valuable contents of these different chapters would doubtless have appeared in a series of unconnected memoirs in the Transactions of the Royal or Astronomical Societies, and

with illustrations very inferior, both in number and quality, had it not been for the munificence of his Grace the late Duke of Northumberland, who destined a large sum for their publication as a single and separate work. This very amiable and public-spirited nobleman, to whom the Observatory at Cambridge owes the gift of the splendid Northumberland achromatic telescope, through which the new planet Neptune was first seen, did not live to witness the final fulfilment of his noble and generous design; but the present Duke, the worthy heir of the titles and the fortune of that distinguished nobleman, carried out, in the fullest manner, the liberal intentions of his lamented brother, and thus added another claim to those which, as Lord Prudhoe, he had already earned, upon the gratitude and esteem of the literary and scientific world.

The following are the subjects which are treated in the volume under our notice:—

Chap. I. On the nebulæ and clusters of stars in the southern hemisphere.

II. On the double stars of the southern hemisphere.

III. Of astrometry, or the numerical expression of the apparent magnitude of stars.

IV. Of the distribution of stars, and of the constitution of the galaxy, or Milky Way, in the southern hemisphere.

V. Observations of Halley's Comet, with remarks on its physical condition, and that of comets in general.

VI. Observations on the Satellites of Saturn.

VII. Observations on the Solar spots.

In the first chapter, on Nebulæ and Clusters of Stars, occupying 164 pages, our author proceeds, after some introductory and explanatory remarks, to give detailed descriptions and monographs of some of the more remarkable of the nebulæ. As some of these nebulae are visible in Europe, and are all objects of singular interest, we shall lay before our readers a very brief notice of the most important of them.

No. 1. This remarkable nebula, which is a nebular line, with the figure of a horseshoe at each end of it, has been observed and drawn by Mr. Mason, and American astronomer, and Mr. Lamont, a native of

possible so to view them." Our author was always satisfied of the reality of this phenomenon at the moment of observation, though the conviction was not permanent, the idea of an illusion arising from physiological causes having subsequently arisen. Sir John has, however, given the right ascension and north polar distance of 37 points of the heavens where this whiteness, or "stippling of the ground of the sky" was seen or suspected. In like manner, he has given the places of the points where the ground of the sky is perfectly dark or black, and "certainly devoid of any such stippling or nebulous phenomenon.

On the 25th of October, 1837, Sir John was fortunate enough to obtain a view of the anxiously expected comet of Dr. Halley, and in his fifth chapter, occupying 21 pages, and constituting, in our opinion, one of the most interesting portions of his work, he has given his observations on this singular member of the solar system, illustrating them with thirteen beautiful drawings of it, and adding some curious speculations on its physical condition, and on that of comets in general. On the 29th October, its appearance was most singular, and such as he had never observed in any previous comet. Its nucleus small, bright, and highly condensed, was shielded or capped on the side next the sun by a vivid but narrow crescent of nebulous light, the front of which presented an outline nearly circular, with an amplitude of about 90° from horn to horn. Within this was situated the nucleus, but at a distance behind the front or vertex of the crescent, considerably less than its versed sine. ✺ On the 1st of November, it had the common appearance of a comet, with its nucleus and slightly diverging tail; but on the 26th January, after its return from the sun, it had assumed a most surprising and totally new appearance. Its head was sharply terminated, like a ground glass-lamp shade; and within this head was seen "a vividly luminous nucleus," like “a miniature comet, having a nucleus head and tail of its own, perfectly distinct, and considerably exceeding in intensity of light the nebulous head." As the comet rose higher, a minute bright point, never greater than 4ʺ, and like a small star, was distinctly perceived, and this point Sir John calls the nucleus. On the 25th January, the following measures were taken:—

Upon repeating these observations in the "strong morning twilight," the results were—

The deficiency in this second measure of the head obviously arose from the effect of twilight; but we can only account for the increase in declination by concluding "that the change was real, and that the comet was actually increasing in dimensions with such rapidity that it might almost be said to be seen to grow!" M. Valz had pointed out the increase in the dimensions of comets as they receded from the sun, but an increase in the ratio of 5 to 6, and in so short an interval, must be regarded as a different phenomenon. On the 26th, the nucleus appeared as a star of the 10th magnitude, furred and nebulous; and the dimensions of the comet had greatly increased, the diameter in right ascension being 309ʺ, and in declination 329ʺ, so that the total bulk of the comet, exclusive of the coma, had greatly more than doubled in 24 hours. On the 28th January, upon looking through the 20 feet reflector, Sir John exclaims—"Most astonishing! The coma is all but gone, but there are long irregular nebulous tails in various directions." The nucleus is now no longer a dim misty speck, but a sharp brilliant point. I cannot, however, raise a well-defined disc on it." "It is like a planetary nebula, a little hazy at the edges, 2ʺ or 2½ʺ in diameter." "I now see a sharp, all but planetary disc, diameter fully 1½ʺ, quite distinct from the haze about it. It is like one of Jupiter's satellites in a thick fog of hazy light." "I can hardly doubt," Sir John adds, "that the comet was fairly evaporated in perihelio by the sun's heat, and resolved into transparent vapour, and is now in process of rapid condensation and re-precipitation on the nucleus." The comet resumed its former size on the 29th, and afterwards gradually disappeared as it receded from the sun. Sir John notices the following points as especially remarkable:—

1st. The astonishingly rapid dilatation of its visible dimensions.

2d. The preservation of the same geometrical form of the dilated and dilating envelope.

3d. The rapid disappearance of the coma; and

4th. The increase in the density and relative brightness of the nucleus.

Our limits will not permit us to discuss the speculative views which these phenomena have suggested to our author. He rejects the hypothesis of Valz, that the volume of the comet is directly proportional to its distance from the sun. He maintains that the laws of gravitation are insufficient to account for such a form of equilibrium as that of the comet, which was paraboloidal, and that such a form, as one of equilibrium, is inconceivable without the admission of repulsive as well as of attractive forces. "But if we admit," he adds, "the matter of the tail to be at once repelled from the sun and attracted by the nucleus, it no longer presents any difficulty." In order to obtain the repulsive power, Sir John hazards a theory which supposes the sun to be permanently charged with electricity. The cometic matters vaporized by the sun's heat, in perihelio, the two electricities separated by vaporization, the nucleus becoming negative and the tail positive, and the electricity of the sun directing the tail, in the same manner as a positively electrified body would an elongated non-conducting body, having one end positively, and the other negatively excited. The separation of Biela's comet into two, travelling side by side, like the Siamese twins, presents a new difficulty which it would not be easy to explain. But here we are beyond our depth; and rather than admit Electricity as an agent residing in every sun and acting upon every system, we remain content with the humbler supposition that the rays of the sun may, in the exercise of their chemical and physical influences, find some ingredients in the tails of comets, upon which, by their joint action, they may generate forces capable of producing the phenomena which we have been considering. If we once admit Magnetism and Electricity as agents in our Sidereal systems, the Mesmerists and Phrenologists will form an alliance with the Astrologer, and again desecrate with their sorceries those hallowed regions on which the wizard and the conjuror have long ceased to tread. *

The elements and perturbations of the sixth satellite of Saturn having been elaborately investigated by Bessel, and very little being known respecting the rest, Sir John Herschel availed himself of his advantageous position at the Cape, to make a series of observations on these interesting bodies. Our readers are no doubt aware that after the fourth satellite had been discovered by Huygens in 1655, Cassini discovered the fifth in 1671, and the first, second, and third, in 1684. Sir W. Herschel discovered, in 1780, the sixth and seventh nearer the planet than the rest, the seventh being the nearest. As this nomenclature was very unsatisfactory, many astronomers named them by given numbers corresponding to their distances from the planet; and Sir John Herschel has proposed to distinguish them by a series of heathen names, as in the following table:

Although it would be difficult to banish from our Solar System the names of the heathen gods by which the primary planets are distinguished, yet we must enter our protest against the admission of a brood of demigods. The nomenclature in the first column of the preceding Table is doubtless the proper one, and the adoption of it can be attended with no more inconvenience than we are accustomed to in analogous matters. If the houses of a street are numbered before it is completed, the numbers must be changed whenever a new house is placed on a vacant area. If it is proper or necessary to give names to the secondary planets, our mythological knowledge must be more extensively put in requisition, for we cannot allow the planet Saturn to have a monopoly of the gods. We must find names for the four satellites of Jupiter, and Uranus; and Neptune will make a similar and a heavy demand upon Lemprière.

Sir John Herschel concludes his work with a Seventh chapter, containing Observations on the Solar Spots, and conjectures respecting their cause. The figures of the spots, of which he has given us thirteen in a very interesting plate, were delineated from

infinitesimal arc of that immeasurable circle in which it is destined to revolve. It is as if the traveller or naturalist, equipped for the survey of nature's beauties and wonders, had been limited only to a Sabbath's journey. Some mountain tops might rise to his view as he creeps along, and some peaks might disappear beyond the horizon which he leaves behind; but had the first man surveyed the constellation Hercules, to which our system is advancing, it would have seemed to him as remote as it will appear to the last of our race.

In the contemplation of the infinite in number and in magnitude, the mind ever fails us. We stand appalled before the mighty spectre of boundless space, and faltering reason sinks under the load of its bursting conceptions. But placed, as we are, on the great locomotive of our system, destined surely to complete at least one round of its ethereal course, and learning that we can make no apparent advance on our sidereal journey, we pant with new ardour for that distant bourne which we constantly approach without the possibility of reaching it. In feeling this disappointment, and patiently bearing it, let us endeavour to realize the great truth from which it flows. It cannot occupy our mind without exalting and improving it. It cannot take its place among our acquirements without hallowing and ennobling them. Though now but a truth to be received, it may yet become a principle of action, and though now veiled by a cloud, it may yet be a lamp to our feet and a light to our ways. Whom God made after his own image, he will not retain in perpetual darkness. What man's reason has made known, man will be permitted to see and to understand. "He that bindeth the sweet influences of the Pleiades, and looseth the bands of Orion, and quieteth Arcturus with his sons," will in His own time "discover deep things out of darkness," and "reveal the ordinances of heaven."

IT has been the good or ill fortune of Dr. Hampden to be the occasion of a controversy, now of some twelve years' standing, in which the real merits of the question at issue form almost the only subject, ecclesiastical or academic, that has not been canvassed. The Oxford convocation of graduates,—its constitution,—the veto of the proctors on its proceedings,—its legal competency to pass a vote of censure on a theological professor, excluding him from the board for naming university preachers,—the moral weight or technical value of such a sentence,—the bearing upon it of another Act, six years later, making the same professor member of another board, the amount of confirmation implied in the refusal, at a still later period, to rescind the original censure;—then, coming down to the present time, the relation in which the judgment of a University stands, or ought to stand, to the practical matter of church-preferment,—the act of the Crown, or its advisers, in appointing to a bishopric a man under an alleged University ban as a heretic,—the propriety of the remonstrance of certain of the bishops,—the force of a congé d'élire,—the terror of a premunire,—the position of a dean and chapter refusing to concur in choosing the Queen's presentee,—the effect of a protest by the dean and an individual canon against the choice, as regards the chance of martyrdom,—the functions of the Archi-episcopal Court for confirming the bishop's election,—the claim of objectors to be heard against the confirmation,—and now, lastly, the jurisdiction of the Court of Queen's Bench amid this chaos of confused forms and laws:—such are a few of the interesting points raised in this edifying controversy,—not to mention the infinite personalities of imputed motives and suspected ends on all sides; while to this hour, the main original inquiry,—Is the worthy Doctor, around whom so great a dust has been gathered, a heretic or a true man?—remains substantially where it was in 1836, when all this stir began.

We have no intention of entering upon this inquiry in the present article. We regard it as an inquiry of the last importance, affecting not only Dr. Hampden’s personal reputation for orthodoxy; but the general condition and tendency of the learned theology of our day. It is an inquiry, also, of no small difficulty, and on this account, as well as from a sense of its vast importance, we would desire to devote more time and space to it than we can now command.

these chapters shall be re-written. Sincerely do we hope that the assured success of this fine production may encourage others to favour the public with equally full and elaborate Dissertations on particular Scripture subjects, this being a department in which our English Biblical literature is wofully deficient.

NINEVAH, or the dwelling of Ninus, was the metropolis of the great Assyrian Empire, the residence of a long line of illustrious princes, and once the largest and most populous city in the world. We learn from the book of Genesis that Asshur, one of the sons of Shem, "went forth" from the land of Shinar, and built Nineveh; but we hear nothing more of it in the sacred writings till Jonah, its inspired missionary, describes it as "a great city," an "exceeding great city of three days' journey," and which required him to take "a day's journey" before he reached the spot from which he was to predict its overthrow. The immense population of this great metropolis is also clearly indicated by the prophet. It contained "more than six score thousand (120,000) persons that could not discern between their right hand and their left hand," and must therefore have contained a population of nearly 600,000.

Although the Ninevites repented at the preaching of Jonah, and were for a while spared, yet the prophet Nahum was, a short time afterwards, commissioned to declare "the burden of Nineveh,"—to announce the destruction of the city, and the downfal of the Assyrian Empire. He describes it as a city with many strongholds, and many gates with bars,—her merchants as multiplied above the stars of heaven,—her inhabitants and princes numerous as the locusts, and the " store and glory" of her "pleasant furniture" as endless. "This is the rejoicing city," says Zephaniah, "that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, and there is none besides me: how is she become a desolation, a place for beasts to lie down in!"

These predictions were literally fulfilled by the destruction of the city in the year 606 B.C., by the combined armies of Cyaxares, King of Persia and Media, and Nabopolassar, who was either King of Babylon, or, as Mr. Layard thinks, the Assyrian governor of the city. "He that dasheth in pieces came up before her face;" "the gates of her land were set wide open unto her enemies;" "fire devoured her bars," and "herself;" "the noise of the whip, and of the rattling of the wheels, and of the prancing horses, and of the jumping chariots," resounded in her "broad ways;" "the gates of the river were opened, and the palace dissolved;" "there was no end of the corpses of the slain;" "the spoil of silver and the spoil of gold" were "taken;" "and the voice of her messengers was no more heard;" "the nations saw her nakedness, and the kingdoms her shame;" "Nineveh was laid waste;" "she was made a desolation, and dry like a wilderness."

The account of Nineveh as given by profane historians, the details of its destruction, and its present condition as observed by modern travellers, confirm in a most remarkable manner the statements of the ancient prophets. Its walls are described by profane writers as a hundred feet high, sixty miles in circumference, and defended by 1500 towers, each of which was 200 feet in height. Diodorus Siculus informs us that the city was destroyed partly by water and partly by fire, and that many talents of gold and silver preserved from the flames were carried to Ecbatana. Lucian, a native of Samosata near the Euphrates, who flourished in the second century, (between A.D. 90 and A.D. 180,) informs us that Nineveh had utterly perished,—that not a vestige of it remained, and that no one could even point out the place which it occupied.

During the eighteen centuries which have elapsed since the time of Lucian, Nineveh was known only in its name. Its very ruins had disappeared; and while the traveller and the antiquary were investigating the remains of Greek and Roman grandeur, and the geologist was ranging over the globe to discover and disinter the fossil remains of the primeval world, no inquiry was made after the Nineveh and Babylon of Holy Writ, and no pilgrimage undertaken to search for the buried palaces of the Assyrian kings. Huge mounds, seemingly composed of earth and rubbish, had long ago attracted the notice of travellers in Assyria

and Babylonia, and were conjectured to be the remains of their mighty capitals. A vitrified mass of brickwork, Birs Nimroud, rising out of the accumulated rubbish of centuries, was believed to be the tower of Babel. The temple of Belus, according to Herodotus, and other mounds in the neighbourhood, were supposed to be the hanging gardens and marvellous structures attributed to the two Queens, Semiramis and Nitocris; but the difficulty of reaching these localities, though it excited the curiosity of the antiquarian, prevented the traveller from ever paying them a passing visit. The presumed site of the Assyrian metropolis had excited still deeper interest than that of Babylonia. The enormous mounds on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite the modern city of Mosul on the right bank, had been noticed by several travellers; and the traditional tomb of Jonah on the top of one of the mounds, gave probability to the supposition that it marked the site of Nineveh; but notwithstanding this probability, Mr. Macdonald Kinnear, who examined these mounds, was disposed to believe that they were the site of a Roman camp of the time of Hadrian!

It is to the late Mr. Rich, the East India Company's resident at Baghdad, that we owe the first investigation of Assyrian remains. The results of his first examination of the ruins of Babylon near Hillah, which he made in May 1812, with a dissertation on the topography of ancient Babylon, were first published at Vienna in Von Hammer's Oriental Journal, entitled Mines de l'Orient, and this work was afterwards reprinted in England in 1815, under the title of Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon. He found the ruins to consist of mounds of earth, formed by the decomposition of buildings, channelled and furrowed by the weather, and having their surface strewed with pieces of brick, bitumen, and pottery. The grand mass of these ruins is 1100 yards long, 800 yards broad, 50 or 60 feet high, and of a quadrantal form. The next grand heap, of nearly a square form, is 700 yards long, and nearly 100 broad. It is the most interesting portion, according to Mr. Rich, of the ruins of Babylon, every vestige of it indicating its superiority to the rest. In the winding caverns and subterranean passages within are found walls of burnt bricks laid in mortar, with fragments of vessels; and Mr. Rich obtained a sepulchral earthenware urn, with human bones near it, which pulverized with the touch. The other remarkable objects examined by Mr. Rich were the Kasr or Palace, * consisting of several walls

and piers, three different perspective views of which have been published by the author. A mile to the north of the Kasr, and fully five miles from Hillah, is the Mujelibe, which Petro della Valle, and after him Major Rennel, determines to have been the tower of Belus. It is of an oblong, irregular shape. The elevation of the highest angle is 141 feet, the average length of its four sides being about 185 yards. In digging out the earth for a passage in the northern part, Mr. Rich discovered near the top a wooden coffin, containing a skeleton in high preservation. A brass bird outside the coffin, and an inside brass ornament were found; and a little further on was found the skeleton of a child. There were no ruins on the eastern side of the river. Mr. Rich then visited the Birs Nimroud, "the most stupendous and surprising mass of all the remains of Babylon, situated in the desert about six miles to the south-west of Hillah." It is an oblong mound, 762 yards in circumference, having on its summit a solid pile of brick, 37 feet high and 28 broad, perforated by small square holes disposed in rhomboids, and having vitrified masses on its summit. The mound is itself a ruin, channelled and strewed with fragments of all sorts. There is some reason to believe with Niebuhr and Mr. Rich, that Birs Nimroud, "which is pretty nearly in the state in which Alexander saw it," was the tower of Belus, described by Herodotus. *

In Mr. Rich's Second Memoir on Babylon, published in 1818, he gives a slight notice of the ruins of Nineveh. He speaks of the rectangular inclosure opposite Mosul as answering to the palace of Nineveh. Its sides correspond to the cardinal points of the compass, the western, one of the largest, facing the river. Its boundary, resembling a low embankment of rubbish, "has attached to it and its line, † at several places, mounds of greater size and solidity." The village of Nebbi Yunus, where they show Jonah's tomb, is built on the mound at the southwest angle. The largest mound situated near the centre of the western face, is supposed to be the monument of Ninus, and is called by the natives Koyunjik Tepe, the

village of Koyunjik being built at its northeast extremity. It has the shape of a truncated pyramid, and is 178 feet high, 1850 feet long on its summit from east to west, and 1847 from north to south. An immense block of stone, sculptured with the figures of men and animals, was found a "short time ago" in one of the mounds on the north face of it.

In the year 1820, Mr. Rich paid his fourth visit to Mosul. Having been obliged, for the benefit of his health, to visit Kurdistan, he returned to Baghdad by way of Mosul, and employed the few weeks he was able to spend in that city in examining the mounds on the opposite bank of the river. In passing through the area of Nineveh, on the 31st of October, he observed marks of a double wall, "the walls on the east having become quite a concretion of pebbles, like the natural hills," though large hewn stones are frequently dug out of them. The stormy weather having abated, he began his examination of the ruins on the 8th November, crossing the Tigris where it was about two fathom deep, and 400 feet wide. At the village of Nebbi Yunus, he found various pieces of gypsum, with inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-headed character, one of which, now in the British Museum, was covered with writing. Another appeared to be part of the wall of a passage "said to reach far into the mound." A third, apparently in its original position, is part of a wall plastered with mud. "I doubt not," says Mr. Rich, "but many other antiquities might be found in this mound, but the greater part of it is thickly covered with a labyrinth of small houses, and it is only on the repairing or falling down of these that such things are discovered."

After visiting the tomb of Jonah, consisting of several dark, narrow, and vaulted ancient passages, surmounted by a mosque, he examined the area of Nineveh, which, at a rough guess, he makes from one and a half to two miles broad, and four miles long, stretching a short way south of Nebbi Yunus. The mound of Koyunjik is 43 feet high, and 7691 in circuit. A fragment of pottery with cuneiform writing was discovered in his presence, and on the south side of the inclosure were found huge stones laid in layers of bitumen and lime mortar. There was also found at Nebbi Yunus a square stone slab, with an extremely perfect cuneiform inscription. After a careful survey of the locality, * Mr. Rich again came to the conclusion at which he had previously arrived, that the present inclosure formed only part of a great city, and was probably either the citadel or royal precincts, an opinion which is in harmony with the descriptions of Strabo and Diodorus Siculus. † Although Mr. Rich lived four months on the site of Nineveh, he made no attempt to excavate the mound, and hence all the antiquities which he did collect, including those from Babylon, would not occupy a cube of three feet.

Such was the meagre information which we possessed in 1844 of the site of Nineveh, and of the sculptures and arts of Assyria. Mr. Layard, indeed, had at an earlier period trodden this consecrated ground, and made some attempts to disinter its antiquities. After wandering through Asia Minor and Syria, in 1839 and 1840, he completed his pilgrimage by repairing to the remains of Nineveh and Babylon. On the 10th April 1840, he entered Mosul, and visited the extensive ruins on the left bank of the Tigris, including the great mounds of Koyunjik and Nebbi Yunus. He explored, in company with Mr. Ainsworth, the mound of Kalah Sherghat, a vast ruin on the Tigris, 50 miles below its junction with the Zab. On his way thither, and near the Arab village of Hammun Ali, he saw the vestiges of an ancient city. From an artificial eminence, he observed over a line of lofty mounds one of a pyramidical form rising high above the rest. "This was the pyramid which Xenophon had described, and near which the ten thousand had encamped;

the ruins around it were those which the Greek General saw twenty-two centuries before, and which were even then the remains of an ancient city." In the vast mass of shapeless ruins at Kalah Sherghat, he discovered a few fragments of pottery and inscribed bricks, but he sought in vain for figures carved in black stone, which, according to a tradition among the Arabs, existed among the ruins. Mr. Layard was particularly struck with the contrast between these ruins and those which he had left behind him in Asia Minor or Syria, and he has presented to us this contrast in the following beautiful passage:—

Mr. Layard again saw and examined the ruins of Nimroud, when descending the Tigris on a raft in the middle of April. Amid the flowers of every hue with which the spring rains had enamelled the mound and the adjacent meadows, he found "a few fragments of bricks, pottery, and alabaster, upon which might be traced the well-defined edges of the cuneiform character." From the base of the mound there stretched a long line of consecutive narrow mounds, which retained the appearance of walls or ramparts, and formed a vast quadrangle. A great dam here crosses the Tigris, which flows over it in a formidable cataract. It consists of huge stones squared and united by cramps of iron, and was intended to furnish water to the innumerable canals which are spread like network over the country. These dams, which greatly impeded the fleets of Alexander, were even in his time looked upon as the works of an ancient nation. The curiosity of Mr. Layard was highly excited by the contemplation of these ancient remains, and "from that time he formed the design of thoroughly examining, whenever it might be in his power, these singular ruins."

When Mr. Layard again visited Mosul, in the summer of 1842, on his way to Constantinople, he found that M. Botta, a nephew of the historian of Italy, had, since his former visit, been appointed French Consul in that city, and had commenced excavations in the great mound of Koyunjik. These excavations were very limited in extent, and had at that time yielded but a few fragments of brick and alabaster, containing a few letters in the cuneiform or arrow-headed character. M. Botta, however, was not discouraged. While continuing his excavations in the same mound, a peasant from the village of Khorsabad, about four or five hours distant from Mosul, happened to visit the spot, and advised the Consul to try the mound on which his own village, of 50 or 60 hovels, was built. M. Botta sent an agent, with one or two workmen, who, on sinking a well, came upon the top of a wall, which, upon digging deeper, they found to consist of sculptured slabs of gypsum. He hastened to the village, and upon cutting a wider trench in the direction of the wall, he found that he had opened a chamber connected with others, and formed of slabs of gypsum, covered with sculptured representations of battles, sieges, and similar events. At the end of six months, he had explored no fewer than six chambers or halls, some of which were very large, and seen 459 feet of bas-reliefs, between which were cut numerous inscriptions in the cuneiform character, proving that the building belonged to a period which preceded the conquest of Alexander. In this manner had M. Botta discovered an Assyrian building, the first, probably, as Mr. Layard remarks, which had been exposed to the view of man since the fall of the Assyrian Empire. As the edifice thus explored had been destroyed by fire, the slabs of gypsum, had reduced to lime by the intense heat, fell rapidly to pieces on exposure to the air. No precaution, says Mr. Layard, could arrest their rapid decay; and it was to be feared that this wonderful monument had only been uncovered to complete its ruin. The records of victories and triumphs which had long attested the power, and swelled the pride, of the Assyrian kings, and had resisted the ravages of ages, were now passing away

for ever. They could scarcely be held together until an inexperienced pencil should secure an imperfect evidence of their former existence. Almost all that was first discovered thus speedily disappeared, and the same fate has befallen nearly everything subsequently found at Khorsabad.

When M. Botta's means were exhausted, he transmitted copies of the sculptures and inscriptions to his friend M. Mohl, the celebrated oriental scholar, who laid them before the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres in Paris. * This learned body took a deep interest in the subject, and induced the Minister of the Interior, M. Duchatel, to make a grant from the public funds to carry on the excavations at Khorsabad. M. Eugene Flandin, a skilful draftsman, whose talents and zeal had been displayed in his travels in Persia, was sent as an auxiliary to the Consul, and on his arrival at Mosul, a system of effectual research was instantly adopted. M. Botta purchased the whole village of Khorsabad for a certain number of piastres from the Chapter of Arbela, to whom it belonged. The Pasha, however, threw difficulties in the way; but in consequence of his death, and the delay in appointing his successor, the French antiquaries pursued their inquiries with ardour and success. Fifteen chambers, many of which were from 111 to 115 feet in length, were explored. The sculptures occupy tablets of marble from 6½ to 10 feet wide, covering the brick walls to the height of 10 feet. In some of the galleries these tablets form two belts, each 3½ feet high, containing figures 3 feet 3 inches in height. Cuneiform inscriptions occupy the space between these two belts. The relief of the figures is proportional to their size, which is occasionally such as to reach from the bottom to the top of the marble slab. These figures compose processions of kings, priests, nobles, and warriors, extending to the length of 1300 feet along the whole façades. Battle-pieces, festivals, captive cities, and the torture and execution of prisoners, are all represented with admirable skill and spirit, and in the highest style of art. The principal gates of entrance are surmounted by gigantic winged bulls, with human heads, crowned with a huge tiara, small lions having been chained at the feet of the bulls. M. Flandin has noticed it as remarkable, that the lion is never represented at liberty, but always in chains; and it deserves also to be remarked, that there are no inscriptions at Khorsabad on the external façades of the buildings. He, therefore, with much probability, refers these sculptures, and the palace which they adorn, to the second and last dynasty of the Assyrian kings, whose names occur in the sacred writings. Mr. Layard was among the first persons who were made acquainted with these researches of M. Botta, who liberally allowed him to see his letters and drawings as they passed through Constantinople; and during the whole period of his excavations, he not only sent Mr. Layard his descriptions, but copies of the inscriptions, without exacting any promise as to the use he might make of them. M. Botta's excavations were completed early in 1845; and having secured many excellent specimens of Assyrian sculpture, he returned to Europe with a rich collection of inscriptions, now lodged in Paris.

Mr. Layard was among the first to form an opinion of the age and origin of the remarkable palace discovered by M. Botta; and in three letters, published in the Malta Times, he stated the general grounds upon which he founded his views. Thus informed on the subject, and impressed with the importance of pursuing these researches, Mr. Layard was anxious to devote himself to the task. If Khorsabad did not represent ancient Nineveh, and if the edifice discovered there had been one of its palaces, other buildings, more vast and magnificent, must exist nearer the seat of government, on the banks of the Tigris. Occupied with this conviction, Mr. Layard's thoughts reverted to the ruins at Nimroud, and the traditions with which they were associated. In the autumn of 1845, Sir Stratford Canning had mentioned to him his willingness to bear for a limited time the expenses of excavations in Assyria, and it is to this generous and noble action of our ambassador that we owe that noble collection of Assyrian antiquities which Mr. Layard has succeeded in transmitting to the British Museum.

Furnished with letters of introduction to the authorities at Mosul, Mr. Layard left Constantinople in the middle of October 1845, "crossed the Mountains of Pontus, and the great Steppes of the Usun Yilak, as fast as post-horses could carry him, descended the high lands into the valley of the Tigris, galloped over the vast plains of Assyria, and reached Mosul in twelve days." Having paid his respects to the Governor, Mohammed Pasha, and secretly procured

a few tools, and engaged a mason, he left Mosul on the 8th November, and accompanied by Mr. Ross, a British merchant in Mosul, his own Cawass, and a servant, he descended the Tigris to Nimroud in five hours, and at sunset reached the Arab village of Naifa. Awad, a Sheikh of the Jehesh, in whose house he lodged, entered his service, and speedily engaged six Arabs to assist in the excavations. In the principal mound, only twenty minutes' walk from the village, about 1800 feet long, 900 broad, and 65 high, supposed to be the pyramid of Xenophon, they found fragments with cuneiform inscriptions, and in the course of the morning ten large slabs forming a square were uncovered, forming the top of a chamber, with an entrance at the north-west corner, where a slab was wanting. Cuneiform inscriptions occupied the centre of all the slabs, which were in the highest preservation. Digging into the side of the mound, the workmen came immediately to a wall having similar inscriptions, but the slabs had been exposed to intense heat, and were so cracked and reduced to lime, that they threatened to fall to pieces. The labours of this first day's work were highly encouraging, and strengthened with five Turcomans, who had been attracted by the prospect of regular wages, the party began the work of the second day. Inscribed slabs, ivory ornaments, with traces of gilding, among which was a male figure in long robes, walls branching out at different angles, and a great accumulation of charcoal, proving the destruction of one of the buildings by fire, were the amount of this day's labour. During the continuance of the excavations for other three days, several inscriptions were uncovered, but no sculptures. Scattered fragments of gold-leaf had induced the workmen to believe that Mr. Layard was in search of gold, and even his head-workman, Awad, had arrived at the same conclusion. "O Bey," said he, "here is the gold sure enough, and, please God, we shall find it all in a few days. Only don't say anything about it to these Arabs, for they are asses, and cannot hold their tongues. The matter will come to the ears of the Pasha." The Sheikh was at once disappointed and surprised when Mr. Layard presented him with the golden treasure he had collected, and assured him that he might retain " all such as he might hereafter discover."

As the experiment of excavation had been successfully tried, Mr. Layard galloped to Mosul in order to acquaint the Pasha, Keritli Oglu, (the son of the Cretan), with the nature and object of his researches. This extortioner by law had one eye and one ear, was short and fat, deeply indented with the small-pox, uncouth in gestures, and harsh in voice. He revived old and forgotten impositions, and he "particularly insisted on dish pararsi, (tooth-money)—a compensation levied upon all villages in which a man of such rank is entertained, for the wear and tear of his teeth in masticating the food he condescends to receive from the inhabitants." The population were in a state of terror and despair, and hopes were expressed and reports whispered, that the tyrant was to be deposed. These murmurs had reached his ears, and he fell upon a plan to test the feeling of the people.

It was to such a man that Mr. Layard had now to appeal. The report of hidden treasure had induced the fanatical Cadi and some of the principal inhabitants to endeavour to raise a riot, which was to end in the demolition of the British Consulate, and other acts of violence. Under these circumstances, Mr. Layard waited on the Pasha, and congratulated him on his speedy recovery—a compliment which he received with a grim smile of satisfaction. The Pasha then introduced the subject of the Cadi:—" 'Does that ill-conditioned fellow,' said he, 'think that he has Sheriff Pasha (his immediate predecessor) to deal with, that he must be planning a riot in the town? When I was at Siwas, the Ulema tried to excite the people because I encroached on a burying-ground. But I made them eat dirt! Wallah! I took every grave-stone and built up the castle walls with them.' He pretended at first to be ignorant of the excavations at Nimroud; but subsequently thinking that he would convict me of prevarication in my answers to his questions as to the amount of treasure discovered, pulled out of his writing-tray a scrap of paper as dingy as that produced by Awad, in which was also preserved an almost invisible particle of gold-leaf. These, he said, had been brought to him by the commander of the irregular

troops stationed at Selamiyah, who had been watching my proceedings. I suggested that he should name an agent to be present as long as I worked at Nimroud, to take charge of all the precious metals that might be discovered."

No objection having been made to the continuance of the excavations, Mr. Layard rode daily from his new residence at Selamiyah, a distance of three miles, to superintend the work. Two fine bas-relief sculptures were now discovered, one representing war-chariots, with warriors, and richly caparisoned horses; and another, the siege of a castle or walled city, with warriors, some on the turrets discharging arrows and stones, and others ascending a ladder placed against the walls. While meditating upon this interesting discovery, Daoud Agha, the commander of the irregulars, brought orders from Mosul to stop the excavations, by threatening the workmen. Mr. Layard rode off early next morning to Mosul to expostulate with the Pasha, who, pretending surprise, disclaimed having given any orders, and directed his secretary to write an order to the commander of the irregulars to assist rather than obstruct him. Mr. Layard requested this letter to be sent to him before he left Mosul; but the Pasha, on the ground that he was unwilling to detain him, promised to forward it in the evening. On his arrival at Selamiyah, Mr. Layard informed Daoud Agha of the success of his visit; but the commander returned to him at midnight with the news, that a horseman had just brought him the most stringent orders, that on no account was he to permit the excavations to be continued. Confounded with this intelligence, Mr. Layard visited the Pasha next day, and received the following explanation of his conduct:—

Mr. Layard pretended to acquiesce in this decision, and requested that a Cawass of his own might be sent with him to Nimroud, in order to have the sculptures already uncovered drawn, and the inscriptions copied. The Pasha's Cawass was readily induced to countenance the employment of a few workmen to guard the sculptures during the day. With regard to the graves that had been disturbed, Daoud Agha confessed that he had been ordered to make graves on the mound, and that his troops had for two nights been bringing stones from distant villages for that purpose. "We have destroyed," said he, "more real tombs of the true believers in making sham ones, than you could have defiled between the Zab and Selamiyah. We have killed our horses and ourselves in carrying these accursed stones." Continuing to employ a few men to open trenches by way of experiment, several gigantic figures, uninjured by fire, were discovered, a crouching lion rudely carved in basalt, and a pair of gigantic winged bulls, without the head and half the wings. On the back of these slabs, 14 feet long, on which these animals had been carved in high relief, were inscriptions in large and well cut characters. A pair of winged lions without the heads, admirably designed and carefully executed, were also discovered, and a human figure nine feet high. These sculptures were left in situ, the upper part only having been examined.

Having now no doubt of the existence of vast edifices in the interior of the mound of Nimroud, Mr. Layard urged on Sir Stratford Canning the necessity of a firman order from the Porte, to prevent his proceedings from being interfered with. He covered over the sculptures, and withdrew from Nimroud, leaving an agent at Selamiyah. On entering Mosul on the 18th December, he found the population rejoicing at the dismissal of Keritli Oglu, and the appointment of Ishmael Pasha as his successor. Owing to the state of the weather, the continuance of the excavations was impossible, and Mr. Layard proceeded to Baghdad, which he reached on the 24th December, in order to consult Major Rawlinson, and make arrangements for the removal of the sculptures at a future period. On his return to Mosul early in January, the new Pasha gave him every assistance and protection. His agent at Nimroud had not been idle. The counterfeit graves had been removed, and also others which possessed more claim to respect. Mr. Layard satisfied the Arabs, that as the bodies were not turned towards Mecca, they could not be those of true believers.

The Cadi of Mosul again contrived to interrupt the excavation. He alleged that Mr. Layard was carrying off treasure, and trying

to prove by the inscriptions that the Franks once held the country. The Mufti took up the same ground, and complained to the Pasha, who requested him to suspend his operations for a short time. Still, however, he made fresh experiments with only a few men to avoid notice. He discovered two human figures about the natural size, in bas-relief, and with the freshness of a recent work. All their parts were entire. The figures were back to back with wings, and an inscription ran across the sculptures. He now recognised at once whence many of the sculptures of the S. W. buildings had been brought, and it was evident, he thought, that he had at length discovered the earliest palace in Nimroud. In the N. W. palace he discovered an eagle-headed figure, of a very singular form, furnished with wings, and clothed in long robes. On all these figures paint could be distinctly seen, particularly on the hair, beard, eyes, and sandals, and the slabs were such that they could be easily packed and transported.

When Mr. Layard was returning to the mound on the morning after these discoveries, he saw two Arabs on their mares approaching him at the top of their speed. "Hasten, O Bey," they exclaimed, " Hasten to the diggers, for they have found Nimroud himself!"

Having engaged two or three men to sleep near the sculptures, Mr. Layard celebrated the day's discovery by a slaughter of sheep, and by a dance, which was kept up during the greater part of the night. Mosul was thrown into commotion by the news. Nimroud was declared by the terrified Arabs to have appeared, and the Cadi, the Mufti, and the Ulema, complained to the Pasha that these excavations were contrary to the Koran. The Pasha requested the excavations to be discontinued till the sensation in the town had subsided. Two men, however, were allowed to dig leisurely, and before the end of March two additional and magnificent specimens of Assyrian art, in perfect preservation, were secured, namely, a second pair of winged human-headed lions, about twelve feet in length and height. Cuneiform inscriptions, in which not a character was wanting, covered all the parts of the slab that were not occupied by the figure.

After paying a visit to the celebrated ruins of Al Hather, which have been described by Dr. Ross † and Mr. Ainsworth, ‡ Mr. Layard returned to Mosul to resume his operations. As several of the principal Christian families were anxious to see the sculptures, Mr. Layard wished to gratify their curiosity by giving them a ball and supper before the summer heat had commenced. The French and English consuls, and their ladies, joined the party, and a general invitation was given to all the Arabs of the district, men and women. The Pasha lent his white pavilions, which were pitched near the river, on a broad lawn, carpeted with flowers, for the accommodation of the ladies and the reception of the Sheikhs; and black tents were provided for some of the guests, and the attendants of the kitchen. In the centre of the group of tents an open space was left for dancing and other exhibitions. The Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman arrived early, magnificently dressed, on his tall white mare, and surrounded by horsemen, carrying spears tipt with tufts of ostrich feathers. A Kurdish band of music accompanied Mr. Layard to meet the Sheikh, whose attendants urged their mares to the top of their speed, engaging in mimic war, and filling the air with their wild war-cry, which was almost drowned by the Kurds, who belaboured their drums and blew their pipes with redoubled energy. The other Sheikhs, with their women and children, came on foot. The wife and daughters of Abd-ur-rahman, mounted on mares, and surrounded by their slaves and hand-maidens, next appeared. When they had dismounted at the entrance of the ladies' tents, they were entertained with sweetmeats, parched peas, and lettuces, while the assembled crowd, male and female, enjoyed the more solid fare of fourteen sheep that were roasted and boiled for the occasion. The dinner was succeeded by dancing, and Mr. Rassam persuaded some of the women to join the debké, the dance of the Arabs, compounded of shuffling steps, twisting attitudes, and stamping, yelling, and jumping. Sword-dances, by warriors of different tribes, were performed; but as the excitement increased with the music, the bystanders were obliged to replace the swords of the performers with stout staves, with which they belaboured one another unmercifully, each successful hit being applauded by the male war-cry and the female tahlehl of the tribe to which the one who dealt it belonged. This féte, which was kept up by moonlight till an early hour, was returned by Abd-ur-rahman, who entertained the Franks next day with debkés and sword-dances. The Sheikh insisted upon Mr. Layard joining with him in leading off a dance, in which they were accompanied by some five hundred warriors and Arab women.

Fortunately for Mr. Layard, a new Governor, Tahyar Pasha, courteous to Europeans, and well-informed in literature and history, came to Mosul; but his means being very limited, he was not able to carry on the excavations as he wished. A small but effective body of workmen, however, continued to excavate, and the result of

their labour was the winged human-headed bull, whose head had been previously found, sixteen copper lions, varying from a foot to an inch in size, and three interesting slabs, now in England, exhibiting the front of the lion and the bull, which, from "the art displayed in the treatment and composition, the correct and effective delineation of the man and animal, the spirit of the grouping, and its extraordinary preservation, is probably the finest specimen of Assyrian art in existence."

At this time, a vizirial letter arrived, procured by Sir Stratford Canning, authorizing the excavations and the removal of the sculptures. Mr. Layard received it when on a gazelle-hunting excursion with Abd-ur-rahman, and he "read by the light of a small camel-dung fire the document which secured to the British nation the records of Nineveh, and a collection of the earliest monuments of Assyrian art." Pecuniary resources, however, were still wanting for extensive excavations; but the zeal of Mr. Layard compensated the parsimony of England. He now opened trenches in the great mound of Koyunjik, which travellers had supposed to mark the true site of Nineveh. The French consul claimed the ruins as French property; but as the claim was not recognised, he and Mr. Layard excavated in different directions for about a month, without much success. The sculptures and inscriptions, however, enabled Mr. Layard to assert with some confidence, that the building to which they belonged was contemporary with that of Khorsabad, and of a more recent epoch than the most ancient palace of Nimroud. After inspecting and covering up for future examination a number of sculptured slabs discovered at Nimroud, Mr. Layard employed himself in packing and transporting to Bombay, by the way of Bagdad, such sculptures as could be moved with the means at his disposal. Steam-vessels having failed in their attempt to ascend the Tigris, Mr. Layard was obliged to float them down to Bagdad on rafts formed of inflated skins and beams of poplar wood. During the operation of packing and transporting the sculptures to the river, which was done by buffalo carts, belonging to the Pasha, the Pasha himself, accompanied by a large body of regular and irregular troops with three guns, paid a visit to Mr. Layard, who entertained this large company for two days, the Pasha's tents being pitched on an island in the Tigris. His Excellency was as much astonished at the sculptures as the Arabs, and the gigantic human-headed lion terrified as well as amazed his Osmanli followers.

Mr. Layard's health compelled him to renounce for awhile his labours at Nimroud, and as he required a cooler climate, he determined to visit the Tiyari mountains, inhabited by the Chaldæan or Nestorian Christians, and to return in September to resume his labours under a cooler sky. After visiting the French excavations at Khorsabad, on his way to the mountains, he passed through the town of Amadiyah, the limit of the authority of the Pasha of Mosul, and reached the village of Asheetha, where he was hospitably received by Yakoub the Rais or chief, and rapturously welcomed by the Chaldæans whom he had employed at Nimroud. This, and all the other villages of the Chaldæan Christians, with the exception of Zaweetha, had been destroyed in 1843 by the ruthless Beder Khan Bey, who massacred in cold blood nearly 10,000 of the inhabitants, and carried off as slaves large numbers of girls and children. * Yakoub, who had witnessed all the scenes of bloodshed in the Tiyari, having been continually with Beder Khan Bey as a hostage, pointed out to Mr. Layard the places where they were perpetrated. When at Lizan on the Zab, without an inhabitable house, the travellers were obliged to spread their carpets amongst the tombs in the graveyard of a roofless church, slowly rising from its ruins, and "the first edifice in the village to be rebuilt." Mr. Layard was induced to visit the scene of one of the most terrible incidents of the massacre, to which he was conducted by an active mountaineer, and he has given us the following account of it:—

On his way to Tkoma, Mr. Layard visited Raola, where the chief subject of conversation was the threatened invasion of Tkoma by Beder Khan Bey. At the village of Birijai he visited the church, in which he saw among the MSS. many ancient rituals, forms of prayer, and versions of the Scriptures; the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles on vellum; and a fine copy of the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles also on vellum, entire, with numerous illuminations, written in the year of the Seleucidæ 1552, an era which commenced in October 312 before Christ. On Sunday morning Mr. Layard was roused at dawn to attend church. The ceremonies were short and simple. Two priests officiated in white surplices: a portion of Scripture was read and explained by the principal priest in the dialect of the mountains, as the Chaldæan of the books is understood by few. The prayers were chaunted by his companion, the congregation kneeling or standing, and joining in the responses. The people used the sign of the cross when entering, and bowed at the name of Christ. The sacrament was administered to all present—men, women, and children partaking of the bread and wine. Mr. Layard's companion received it also, and they seemed to feel hurt at his declining to take it, until he stated that he did not refuse from any religious prejudice. The congregation then embraced each other at the close of the service. "I could not but contrast," says Mr. Layard, "these simple and primitive rites, with the senseless mummery and degrading forms adopted by the converted Chaldæans of the plains—the unadorned and imageless walls with the hideous pictures and monstrous deformities which encumber the churches of Mosul."

One of the Meleks of the tribe came to Birijai to welcome Mr. Layard to Tkoma Gowaia, the principal village of the district, containing 160 houses. When they reached the church they found the whole tribe assembled there in consultation on the defence of their village against the threatened invasion of the Kurds. A deputation was sent off to the Pasha of Mosul to implore his protection and aid. At the deserted and ruined village of Chonba, in the valley of the Zab, Mr. Layard's party could not find a roof under which they could pass the night, and they were obliged to spread their carpets under a cluster of walnut trees, on the very same spot where Beder Khan Bey had pitched his tent after the great massacre, and where he received Melek Ismail, the chief of the Tiyari, when he was delivered a prisoner into his hands. Yakoub, who was present at the surrender of this Christian hero, thus described the event:—

On his return to Mosul, Mr. Layard visited the Rock Sculptures at Malthayiah. The sculptures are Assyrian, contemporary with the Kings of Khorsabad and Koyunjik. They consist of four tablets of bas-relief cut in the rock, and on each tablet are nine figures in the act of adoring three divinities. He visited also Alkosh, a considerable Roman Catholic valley, containing the tomb of the prophet Nahum the Alkoshite.

Although Tahyar Pasha, the governor of Mosul, had attempted to avert the calamity, yet a few days after Mr. Layard had reached Mosul, Beder Khan Bey marched his ferocious Kurds against Tkoma, massacring in cold blood men, women, and children. Three hundred women and children flying into Baz were killed in the pass; and nearly half the population fell victims to the fanaticism of the Mohammedan murderer. The Porte was roused to a sense of its duty by these atrocious deeds. Osman Pasha was sent against the rebellious Kurd, who, after suffering two signal defeats, took refuge in a mountain fortress, and obtained too favourable terms of capitulation. He was brought to Constantinople, and subsequently sent to the island of Candia;—a very inadequate punishment for rebellion and murder.

Mr. Layard has devoted an interesting chapter to an account of the origin, history, and doctrines of the Chaldæan or Nestorian Christians. This primitive sect of the Christian Church has for nearly seventeen centuries maintained the purity of their faith, and the simplicity of their worship, uncontaminated by the superstitions of the Church of Rome; and it is not easy to assign a reason why so little sympathy has been extended to them by the Protestant Churches of Europe. They deny the doctrine of purgatory; they refuse to the Virgin the titles and exaggerated veneration given her by the Romish and Eastern Churches. They deny the supremacy of the Pope; the absolute celibacy of the whole clergy; and the doctrine of transubstantiation. They neither worship images nor exhibit them; and they admit the Nicene Creed to its fullest extent. They observe the Sabbath strictly, and give the bread and wine of the Sacrament to persons of all ages.

A few days after Mr. Layard returned to Mosul, he and Mr. Rassam, the British Vice-Consul, received an invitation to the great periodical feast of the Yezidis, or " Worshippers of the Devil;" a designation which they have acquired either from their respect or their terror for the evil principle. Keritli Oglu, the late Pasha, had seized by treachery, as he supposed, their head or High Priest, Sheikh Nasr, but the Sheikh had artfully substituted in his place the second in authority, who was carried prisoner to Mosul. The substitute having borne with resignation the torture and imprisonment intended for Sheikh Nasr, was released by Mr. Rassam, on the advance of a considerable sum of money, which the Yezidis faithfully repaid out of the produce of their fields. Mr. Rassam was unable to avail himself of the invitation, but Mr. Layard, anxious to clear up the mystery which hung over their worship and tenets, repaired with the dragoman of the Vice-Consulate, Hodja

Toma, to Baadri, the residence of Hussein Bey, the political chief of the Yezidis. Baadri is situated at the foot of the range of hills about five miles to the north of Ain Sifni. He was met near the village by Hussein Bey, a handsome and richly dressed youth, about 18 years of age, and by the priests and principal inhabitants on foot. Having breakfasted in Hussein's Salamlik, or reception-room, he was left during the heat of the day to his siesta. In the afternoon, he was awakened by the shrill cry of the women, which generally announces same happy event. The Sheikh himself entered soon afterwards, and announced the birth of an heir. "The child is yours," he said. "He is our first-born, and he will grow up under your shadow. Let him receive his name from you, and be hereafter under your protection." Mr. Layard was at first perplexed by the request that he should "stand godfather to a devil-worshipper's baby;" but with the sagacity which distinguishes him, he suggested, in a neat Oriental speech, the name of the child's grandfather Ali Bey, and accompanied it with a few gold coins to be sewed to the cap of the infant. Presents from the mother, and an invitation to the Harem, to see the females of the family, indicated the gratitude of all parties. The festival took place next day; and men and women purified themselves by oblations, before repairing to the tomb of their saint Sheikh Adi. The tomb stands in a narrow valley, with only one outlet. It is surrounded with buildings, inhabited by certain members of the priesthood and their families, who are chosen to watch over the sacred precincts; and low buildings are erected for the accommodation of pilgrims and pedlars during the festivities. Gigantic trees throw their shade over the open space, and streams of fresh water are conducted round the buildings.

The assembly having sat till nearly midday at the door of the tomb, the High Priest rose, and was followed by Mr. Layard into the outer court filled with pilgrims. The stores of travelling merchants were spread on the ground. Many coloured handkerchiefs and cotton stuffs hung from the trees. Dried fruits in heaps loaded the pavement, attracting the notice of groups of children. The High Priest was respectfully saluted as he passed, and he and Hussein Bey and Mr. Layard placed themselves on the slab surrounding a fountain by the road side, listening to the music of pipes and tambourines, mixed with the hum of human voices, sounding through the valley.

Dancing and music, vocal and instrumental, followed the salutation of the priests. Anxious spectators occupied every spot from which the dancers could be seen, and the branches above were bending under clusters of boys, the manœuvres of one of whom gave rise to an amusing incident, which throws some light on the extraordinary superstitions of the sect.

As the twilight faded, the Fakirs, or servants of the tomb, issued from the tomb to fill and trim the lamps on the walls of the court-yard, and in the different buildings, and even in isolated rocks, and the hollow trunks of trees. As the priests advanced, the crowds passed their right hands through the flames, and rubbed their right eye-brow, and that of the children, with the part purified by the sacred element. About an hour after sunset, the Fakirs were sent to Mr. Layard from the kitchen of the holy edifice with platters of boiled rice, roast meat, and fruit. The night scene, and the true character of the rites of the Yezidis, is thus given by our author:—

On the second day of the festival the same ceremonies were repeated, and towards the evening of that day about 7000 persons had assembled. During the three days that Mr. Layard remained at Sheikh Adi he wandered over the valley and surrounding mountains, talking with the various groups of pilgrims, and listening to their tales of oppression and bloodshed.

Although we have no doubt of the truth of Mr. Layard's opinion that Sheikh Adi is not the scene of the orgies attributed to the Yezidis, because the whole valley is held sacred, and no acts permitted within its sacred precincts which the Jewish law has declared impure, yet we cannot believe that "stories" can be entirely without foundation "which have rendered the name of the Yezidis an abomination throughout the East." Mr. Layard acknowledges that they

are very suspicious of strangers, and fearful of betraying the secrets of their faith; and he admits, that some ceremony took place before he joined the assembly at the tomb, at which no strangers can be present, nor could he learn its nature from the Cawals.

The religion of this singular people is "a strange mixture of Sabæanism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, with a tincture of the doctrines of the Gnostics and Manichæans." They recognise one supreme being, but do not appear to offer any direct prayer or sacrifice to him. It does not appear that they actually worship the devil. The name of the evil spirit is never mentioned, and the allusion to it by others is said to have been expiated by death. They avoid every expression resembling in sound the name of Satan, or the word for " accursed." They eschew Shat, a river, and even Keitan, a thread, as resembling Sheitan, the devil. When they do speak of him it is with reverence, as Melek Taous, King Peacock, and they have a bronze or copper figure of a bird (called Melek Taous) which they preserve as a symbol, not as an idol, and which is always kept by the Great Sheikh, and carried with him. They regard Satan as the chief of the angelic host, suffering punishment for rebellion against the Divine will, but all powerful, and hereafter to be restored. Inferior to him in might and wisdom are seven archangels. Christ they regard as a good angel, who took the human form and ascended to heaven without being crucified. They reverence the Old Testament, and do not reject either the New Testament or the Koran. They look for the second coming of Christ. They appear to have no religious observances on marriage, and the number of wives is not limited. The Sheikh, when he ascertains that there is mutual consent, marries the party, and a ring is given to the bride. They have four orders of priesthood —the Pirs or saints, the Sheikhs, who watch over the tomb of Sheikh Adi, the Cawals or preachers, and the Fakirs, who perform menial offices; and, what is unexampled in the East, all these offices are hereditary, and descend to females, who, when they enjoy them, are treated with the same consideration as the men.

Tahyar Pasha having planned an expedition into the Sinjar, Mr. Layard returned to Mosul, and accompanied the governor on his almost royal progress. The Yezidis of Mirkan, who had suffered from the extortions and cruelties of former Pashas, refused to meet him, and declared their intention of defending their village. The Pasha's troops soon entered and plundered the village, murdered the decrepit old men and women who could not escape, and burned it to the ground. The Yezidis took refuge in a narrow gorge, abounding in caverns and isolated rocks. After several days' hard fighting in which many of the Pasha's troops were killed, the Yezidis retreated during the night, by a pathway known only to themselves.

Anxious to renew the excavations, Mr. Layard took leave of the Pasha, and found on his return to Mosul letters from England, informing him that Sir Stratford Canning had presented the sculptures discovered in Assyria to the British nation, and that Government had granted funds to the British Museum for carrying on the researches commenced at Nimroud and elsewhere. Although this grant was small, and inferior to that made to M. Botta for the excavations at Khorsabad, yet Mr. Layard resolved to turn it to the best account, and was obliged to undertake the multifarious occupations of draughtsman, of cast-taker, sculpture-packer, and overseer of workmen. By the end of October he began to excavate, with a body of Arabs,—fifty Nestorian Chaldæans, who brought their wives and families,—a skilful marble-cutter,—a carpenter,—a few men from Mosul, and his three servants. The success of his operations was proportional to the strength of his establishment. A great number of beautifully executed bas-reliefs were discovered. They represented the wars of the King who stands gorgeously attired in a chariot drawn by three horses richly caparisoned. Behind him are three chariots with warriors and archers, and in several places are introduced groups of men slaying the enemy. The return after victory, the procession to the Royal castle, the siege of a town, the reception of captives, the crossing of a river, the embarkation of chariots and troops, are all finely represented in these interesting antiquities. Mr. Layard also found the remains of iron armour almost decomposed, and also remains of copper armour, and iron inlaid with copper. A perfect helmet, which immediately fell to pieces, and which is represented in the bas-reliefs, was discovered, together with vases of the finest alabaster, and vessels of baked clay;—but particularly a vase in glass, of elegant shape and admirable workmanship, bearing the title of the Khorsabad King.

In the centre of the mound where the pair of gigantic winged bulls, formerly mentioned, were found, the workmen disinterred an obelisk of black marble, about seven feet high. It was flat at the top, which was cut into three gradines. It contained on its four sides twenty small bas-reliefs, and above, below, and between them, was an inscription of 210 lines. It was in a state of high preservation,

the figures sharp and well-defined, and not a character of the inscription wanting. Mr. Layard conjectures that it was commemorative of the conquest of India, or some country far east of Assyria. In the southeast corner of the mound a pair of winged lions, with a pair of crouching sphinxes between them, were discovered. The fire which destroyed the building had raged here with extraordinary fury. The sphinxes, which were about five feet in height and length, were almost reduced to lime; and Mr. Layard had just made drawings of them, when they fell to pieces. In the south-east corner, the highest part of the mound, the workmen came upon the lid of an earthen sarcophagus, five feet long, but very narrow. The skeleton was well preserved, but fell to pieces when exposed to the air. The body had been doubled up when forced into it. Another, like a dish-cover, and scarcely four feet long, was found near the first. Neither of the skulls could be preserved, as they crumbled into dust when touched.

Mr. Layard had, early in December, collected a sufficient number of bas-reliefs to load another raft; but in consequence of the Arabs of the desert having stolen the spars, skins, and mats which he had collected for the purpose, it was not till the 25th of the month that he had the satisfaction of seeing a raft, bearing twenty-three cases, in one of which was the obelisk, floating down the Tigris to Baghdad.

In the second volume of this interesting work, Mr. Layard completes in four chapters the fourteen which contain the account of his excavations and his journeys to the hills—the remaining, and by far the largest part of the volume, being devoted to a dissertation of seven chapters, treating of the materials for the history of Assyria, the architecture, the arts, the costume, the military system, the private life, and the religion of the Assyrians.

Tahyar Pasha died of a broken heart, in consequence of having been led, by the false representations of his officers, to attack and plunder a friendly tribe. This event, however, did not interfere with the proceedings of Mr. Layard. After Christmas he resumed his labours in the north-west palace, where the sculptures had not suffered from fire. He had at this time discovered only eight chambers, but before the end of April he had explored almost the whole building, and had opened twenty-eight chambers cased with alabaster slabs. In addition to the usual bas-reliefs of warlike and triumphant kings, winged female deities, gigantic eagle-headed winged figures, and a curious representation of the Assyrian Venus, Mylitta, or Astarte, in a questionable position, he obtained a number of ivory ornaments of considerable beauty, and furnishing important evidence respecting the epoch at which the building was destroyed. When these ivories were uncovered, they were in such a state of decomposition, and adhered so firmly to the soil, that Mr. Layard spent hours lying on the ground, trying to separate them with his penknife from the surrounding rubbish. The ivory came off in flakes. Many valuable specimens were thus lost; but those which were brought to England have been admirably restored by a process of singular ingenuity, suggested, we think, as we have heard Mr. Layard say, by Dr. Buckland. The gelatinous matter which cemented, as it were, the particles of ivory, had been dissolved and removed; and by the re-absorption of gelatine dissolved in water, they have recovered the consistency and appearance of fresh ivory, and may be handled without the risk of injuring them!

Mr. Birch has, in a learned Paper published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, (new series,) endeavoured to fix the age of these ivories, "by their artistic style, by their philological peculiarities, and by the political relations between Egypt and Syria." He regards them as not purely Egyptian, but closely resembling Egyptian workmanship; and he considers them as of the age of the 22d or Bubastite dynasty, or about 980 B. C. *

In excavating in the centre of the mound to the south of the great winged bulls, Mr. Layard found a tomb, five feet long, and eighteen inches broad, built of bricks, and covered with a slab of alabaster. The

skull and large bones of the skeleton were entire, and near the right shoulder were three earthen vessels. In the dust round the skeleton were parts of a necklace, beads of opaque coloured glass, agate, cornelian, and amethyst. A small crouching lion of lapis-lazuli was also found. The vases and ornaments were Egyptian in their character. Many other tombs were found containing vases, mirrors, spears, and beads. Having removed the contents of the tombs, the remains of a building were discovered five feet beneath them. The slabs, containing both sculptures and inscriptions, were scattered about without order. After nearly twenty tombs had been removed from a space about fifty feet square, the uncovered ruins had a singular aspect: above 100 slabs, packed in rows, leant against each other, like slabs in a stone-cutter's yard. As the Assyrians carved these slabs after they were placed, it was evident that this collection of them had been moved from their original position, or that the central building had been destroyed to supply materials for the construction of this edifice. The slabs were placed in a regular series according to the sculptures upon them, which were chiefly battles and sieges. To the south of the centre building two gigantic figures were discovered, similar to those discovered to the north.

In the south-west palace were found gigantic-winged bulls, lions with human heads, and double crouching sphinxes. All the walls had been exposed to fire, the slabs being cracked, and nearly reduced to lime. Amid a mass of charred wood and charcoal, and beneath a fallen slab, part of a beam of wood, apparently mulberry, was found in good preservation—the only portion of entire wood as yet discovered in the Assyrian ruins.

The principal burying-place of the people who occupied the country after the destruction of the oldest of the palaces, was on the south-east, or highest corner of the mound. Many tombs were here discovered, resembling dish-covers, and containing silver ornaments, lachrymatories, and small alabaster bottles. The skeletons, though at first entire, crumbled to pieces. Two skulls alone have been preserved. The remains of a building were discovered beneath the tombs, containing seven chambers. There were no traces of inscriptions upon the slabs, nor remains of colour upon the plastered walls.

On the eastern face of the mound a singular discovery was made. The wall which surrounded the lower buildings, built of sun-dried bricks, was nearly fifty feet thick, and, buried in its centre, about fifteen feet below the surface of the platform, the workmen found a small vaulted chamber, built of baked bricks. Its height and width were about ten feet. The arch was constructed on the well-known principle of vaulted roofs, the bricks being placed side-ways, and probably sustained by a wooden centering till the vault was finished. The greater part of the rubbish which piled this chamber was a kind of slag. The sides of the bricks which formed the arched roof and walls were almost vitrified. The chamber, indeed, had the appearance of a large furnace for making glass, or for fusing metal. As there was no access to this chamber from without, it must have been used before the upper part of the wall was built.

Although several trenches were opened in other parts of the mound, disclosing pavements, slabs, and articles in copper, yet the ruins were very inadequately explored, as Mr. Layard, from the smallness of the sum placed at his disposal, could not pursue his researches to the extent that he desired. He has, therefore, as he himself observes, "left a great part of the Mount of Nimroud to be explored by those who may hereafter succeed him in the examination of the ruins of Assyria."

The twelfth chapter of the work is occupied with an account of the excavations undertaken at Kalah Sherghat, (on the Tigris, about half a degree south of Nimroud,) and principally at the west side of the mound. A mutilated sitting figure, in black basalt, the only specimen existing of an entire Assyrian figure, had been uncovered before Mr. Layard arrived, a cuneiform inscription occupying the three sides of the square block on which the figure sat. He found upon it the names of the king's father (the builder of the most ancient palace of Nimroud) and of his grandfather; and an Arab having brought him a brick bearing a short legend, which "contained the three names entire, he was thus enabled to fix the comparative

epoch of the newly-discovered ruins." "At no time," says Mr. Layard, "did I feel the value of the genealogical lists on the different monuments at Nimroud more than when exploring other remains in Assyria. They enabled me to ascertain the comparative date of every edifice and rock-tablet with which I became acquainted, and to fix the style of art of each period." Several tombs like those found at Nimroud, and containing bones, &c., were discovered near the ruins, and above these ancient tombs were graves of more recent date, some of them, indeed, belonging to the tribes which had, a few days before, encamped among the ruins. The principal ruin here is a large mound, surmounted by a cone or pyramid, which rises nearly in the centre of the north side of the great platform. It is one of the largest in Assyria, being about 4685 yards in circuit. It is a stupendous structure, not inferior in magnitude and extent to any other artificial mound in Assyria. Its height is unequal, and its sides perpendicular, rising, in some places, nearly 100 feet above the plain. Mr. Layard does not venture to identify the city with Cholah, one of the four primitive cities mentioned in Genesis, or the Ur of Abraham, which existed in the time of Ammianus Marcellinus. Mr. Ainsworth considers Kalah Sherghat as the Ur of the Persians and Chaldæans; but as Ammianus Marcellinus does not mention Hatra after but before Ur, Mr. Layard regards Mr. Ainsworth's argument in favour of the identification of the latter city with Kalah Sherghat as scarcely tenable. *

Upon his return to Mosul, Mr. Layard made preparations for removing the sculptures to Baghdad. The trustees of the British Museum had wisely determined that the larger sculptures should not be sawn in pieces like the pair of bulls sent to France from Khorsabad. The winged bull and the lion were to remain covered over with earth till a favourable opportunity should occur for transporting them entire. Unwilling, however, to leave behind him the very finest specimen of Assyrian art which he had discovered, Mr. Layard resolved upon attempting the removal and embarkation of two of the smallest bulls and lions, and the best preserved of the thirteen pairs of those

gigantic sculptures which had been disinterred. A strong cart of mulberry was accordingly constructed, and a pair of strong iron axles purchased, which had been used by M. Botta. This cart was an object of wonder to all classes at Mosul; and its passage, by the aid of a pair of buffaloes, across the frail bridge of boats at Mosul, was an exciting spectacle. The bulk of the huge slabs was diminished by cutting away as much as possible from the back of them; and, in order to convey the bull from the river to the cart, a trench 200 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 20 feet deep, required to be cut. With ropes from Aleppo, hawsers from Baghdad, and blocks and jack-screws from the steamers of the Euphrates expedition, Mr. Layard began to remove the bull on the 18th of March. A large number of Abou Salman Arabs, with their Sheikh, attended by a body of horsemen, and the inhabitants of Haifa and Nimroud, aided Mr. Layard's Arabs and Nestorians on this momentous occasion. The lowering of the bull from its place, which is represented in a beautiful frontispiece to the first volume, was the most difficult part of the operation. The mass descended gradually amidst the intense anxiety of the spectators. The Arabs, half-frantic with excitement, raised their war-cry amid the drums and pipes of the Kurdish musicians; and almost naked, with their long hair floating in the wind, they indulged in the wildest postures and gesticulations as they clung to the ropes, their enthusiasm being increased by the incessant screams, and the ear-piercing tahleel of the women.

The fortunate descent of the bull was signalized by feasting and dancing; and on the following day it was conveyed as far as the ruins of the former village of Nimroud, where it stuck in one of the deep pits in which the villagers deposit their winter stores. Here it remained during the night, watched by a party of Arabs, who were attacked by some adventurous Bedouins, who had coveted the ropes, mats, and felts in which the bull was enveloped. The thieves, however, were beaten off; and the bull, when raised out of the pit, was dragged in triumph to within a few hundred yards of the river,—an interesting scene which is well represented in the frontispiece to the second volume. The lion was removed more easily, though it took two days to reach the river; and with the aid of the Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman and his Arabs, the sculptures were placed on rafts floated by 600 skins.

After the departure of the lion and bull, Mr. Layard opened a deep trench or well in the high conical mound or pyramid, the whole mass of which he found to be built of sun-dried bricks. He supposes, that being originally cased with stone, or coloured baked bricks, it may have been raised over the tomb of some monarch, or intended as a watch-tower. There were no traces of an interior chamber. "It is possible, however," as Mr. Layard says, "that this may prove to be the very pyramid raised above the remains of the founder of the city by the Assyrian Queen, the 'Busta Nini,' under which may still be found some traces of the sepulchre of the great King." On the edge of the ruins were found two enormous winged bulls, 17 feet high, which had fallen from their place. Mr. Layard now began to bury the numerous sculptures which he was obliged to leave, in conformity with the instructions he received from the British Museum.

Mr. Layard concludes his thirteenth chapter with an interesting recapitulation of six pages, in which he endeavours to conduct the reader through the ruins of the principal edifice, and to convey to him some idea of the excavated halls and chambers as they appeared when fully explored. As our limits will not permit us to make such a long extract, we must try, in the space of one page, to present our readers with its essence. As we approach the mound not a trace of ruins is to be seen; a broad and parched platform alone meets the eye. By a flight of rudely cut steps, we descend about twenty feet into the principal trench, and suddenly find ourselves between a pair of colossal lions, winged and human-headed, and forming a portal. Leaving behind us a small chamber, in which the sculptures are rudely designed and executed, we pass from between the lions into the principal hall. On both sides of us are sculptured gigantic winged figures, eagle-headed and human-headed, with mysterious symbols in their hands. To the left is another portal, formed by winged lions. One of them has fallen across the entrance, and there is just room to creep beneath it. Beyond this portal is a winged figure and two slabs, with almost effaced bas-reliefs. Further on there are no traces of a wall. The opposite side of the hall has also disappeared, and we only see a high wall of earth, which we discover to be a solid structure built of bricks of unbaked clay, scarcely to be distinguished from the soil. Slabs of alabaster fallen from their original position have been raised, and we tread in the midst of a maze of small bas-reliefs representing chariots, horsemen, battles, and sieges. Having walked about 100 feet among these monuments, we reach another door-way, formed by gigantic winged bulls in yellow limestone. One is entire; the great human head of the other is at our feet, and its body broken in pieces. Without entering the building to which this portal leads, we see, as we pass on, another winged figure, apparently presenting a flower to the winged bull, and adjoining it eight fine bas-reliefs, representing the king hunting and triumphing over the lion and the wild bull, and also the siege of the castle with the battering ram. We are now at the end of the hall, and before us is an elaborate sculpture,—two kings standing beneath the emblem of the Supreme Deity, and attended by winged figures. Between them is the sacred tree. In front of this bas-relief is the great stone platform on which the Assyrian throne may have stood. Issuing through a fourth outlet from the hall, between another pair of lions, we are stopped by a deep ravine, to the north of which towers above us the lofty pyramid. On walls near this ravine are seen various figures of tribute-bearing captives and monkeys; and lying on its very edge are two enormous bulls, and two winged figures above 14 feet high. Returning to the yellow bulls, we

pass between them into a large chamber, surrounded by eagle-headed figures, having at one end a door-way guarded by two priests, and in the centre another portal with winged bulls. Whichever way we turn we are in the midst of a nest of rooms, and would soon lose ourselves. As the rubbish has been placed in the centre of the chambers, the excavations consist of a number of narrow passages, panelled on one side with slabs of alabaster, and shut in on the other by a high wall of earth, in which a broken vase or a painted brick may be seen. Other entrances, formed by winged lions, lead us into new chambers, containing fresh objects which at once surprise and interest us. Emerging from the buried palace by a trench opposite to that by which we entered, we are again upon the level platform. "We are half-inclined to believe that we have dreamed a dream, or have been listening to some tale of eastern romance." "Some," says our author, "who may hereafter tread on the spot when the grass again grows over the ruins of the Assyrian palaces, may indeed suspect that I have been relating a vision."

The country round Nimroud having become dangerous from the incursions of the Arabs, and a small sum of money being still in his hands, Mr. Layard devoted it to an examination of the ruins opposite Mosul, especially the great mound of Koyunjik. Slabs had from time immemorial been taken from this mound for building materials, or to be burnt for lime, and a bas-relief had been some years ago discovered during a search after stones for a bridge across the Tigris. Beneath Jonah's tomb and the village there was reason to expect remains of considerable importance, which had only been preserved by the superincumbent property. The French consul had excavated this mound unsuccessfully, but Mr. Layard had now discovered from experience the proper method of examination. In building a palace the Assyrians first constructed a platform or solid compact mass of sun-dried bricks, about 30 or 40 feet high. Upon this they reared their fabric, and when it was destroyed the ruins remained on the platform, half-covered by the upper walls and roof, and covered in course of time by the dust and sand of the summer winds. The first step in excavation, therefore, is to reach the brick platform, and open trenches on the same level, and in every direction. The platform here was 20 feet deep, and the wall first discovered was the side of a chamber, with an entrance formed by winged bulls, leading into a second hall. In the course of a month nine chambers, the largest of which was 130 feet long and 30 wide, were explored,—similar to those of Nimroud and Khorsabad. The bas-reliefs, however, were larger, being about 10 feet high and 8½ wide, and the winged human-headed bulls, forming the entrance, about 15 feet square. The inscriptions were not numerous. The name of the king was the son of the builder of Khorsabad. The sculptures were generally of the same character as those described—the conquests and triumphs of the Assyrian king. One of them, however, was uncommon. It was a sea-piece, representing vessels filled with warriors, leaving a castle on the sea-shore. Mr. Layard regards this sculpture as recording an Assyrian conquest of Tyre.

Mr. Ross has more recently pursued these excavations at the desire of the Trustees of the British Museum. He has found that there were more buildings than one on the platform, and in addition to many bas-reliefs divided in the centre by bands of inscriptions, he has discovered a monument of considerable interest, supposed to have been an Assyrian tomb.

Having covered up the sculptures which he could not remove, and transported to Busrah the valuable results of his labours, Mr. Layard left Mosul and returned to England, to receive the applause and gratitude of the public, aud we trust the more substantial rewards which a distinguished scholar is entitled to expect from his Sovereign,—rewards which he never fails to receive in every other country but ours. The Governments of France and England have a right to complete the researches which they have so successfully begun, and we earnestly hope that neither penurious cabinets, nor empty exchequers, nor civil broils, will

prevent them from advancing ample funds to rescue from barbaric hands and fanatical hearts the magnificent remains which still lie deep in the plains of Mesopotamia.

Having given a history of his excavations, and a description of the discoveries to which they lead, Mr. Layard has devoted the second part of his work, consisting of seven chapters, to an inquiry into the history, the civilisation, the manners, and the arts of the ancient Assyrians. These chapters, which are illustrated by a large number of admirably executed woodcuts, exhibit much learning and ingenuity, and considering how limited and incomplete were his materials, Mr. Layard's dissertation will be perused with deep interest by the philosophical as well as the general reader, while the pious student will ponder with delight over the numerous illustrations and confirmations of the descriptions and statements of the Old Testament Scriptures. We regret that our too narrow limits will not allow us to make extracts from this portion of Mr. Layard's volumes. We shall merely indicate the more important conclusions at which he has arrived. From the concurring testimony of Scripture and Herodotus, 606 B. C. is the date of the conquest of Nineveh by Cyaxares. The buildings must, therefore, be assigned to an epoch preceding 634 B. C., as the Scyths had held Assyria 28 years before that era. Two written characters were in use among the Assyrians, the cuneiform or arrow-headed, which has been so successfully studied by Major Rawlinson, and which, like the hieroglyphics of Egypt, is read from left to right—and the cursive or hieratic, which, like the Hebrew and Arabic, runs from right to left. It is not known which of these two modes of writing is the more ancient, but it is probable that simple perpendicular, and horizontal lines preceded rounded forms. The cuneiform writing has been classed by Major Rawlinson into Assyro-Babylonian, Primitive Babylonian, Medo-Assyrian, Assyrian and Elymæan. Mr. Layard suggests the substitution of early and later Assyrian, for Assyrian and Medo-Assyrian, and he thinks it may be asserted with confidence, that the most ancient hitherto discovered is the Assyrian.

The earliest records of the Assyrians were cut on the walls of temples, palaces, or the smooth faces of rock. The most common mode was on prepared bricks, tiles, * or cylinders of clay, baked after the inscription was impressed. The letters on the Babylonian bricks have been stamped, and perhaps some of those on the Assyrian ones, but it is more probable that they were cut with a sharp instrument of iron. * Major Rawlinson found traces of varnish on the surface of the rock at Behistan, intended doubtless to preserve the tablet with its inscription.

After discussing the various dates of the different buildings, Mr. Layard concludes that the first palace could not have been founded later than 900 years B. C. He considers 1100 or 1200 B. C. as the date of the most ancient palace, according to the most moderate calculation, though he thinks it probable that it is much more ancient. The following are the dates of the principal events of Assyrian history, according to Clinton. †

Mr. Layard concludes, in general—

1. That there were at least two distinct periods of Assyrian history, great changes having taken place between the building of the first palace at Nimroud, and that of the edifices at Khorsabnd and Koyunjik.

2. That the names of the kings prove a lapse even of some centuries between the earliest and the latest of those edifices.

3. That there was a close connexion with Egypt, either by conquest or friendly intercourse, between the dates of these edifices.

4. That the earlier palaces of Nimroud were in ruins and buried before the foundation of the later; and,

5. That two distinct dynasties existed in Assyria, and that an Assyrian monarchy was founded about 2000 years before Christ.

As the details of Assyrian architecture, of the arts of painting and sculpture, of the arms, costumes, and military instruments of the Assyrians, of their private life, and religious rites, are too minute to admit of our giving any general account of them, we must refer our readers to the remaining chapters of the work.

Although our author has given many specimens of the sculptures of Nineveh in his first work, yet it is only from the second—

THE MONUMENTS OF NINEVEH, that we can form an adequate idea of their beauty and magnificence. We have waited till the last hour, in the hope of being able to give our readers some account of this remarkable volume; but though we have been disappointed in not having an opportunity of examining in succession its Hundred Plates, yet having seen in Mr. Layard's possession many of the original drawings, and a great number of the Plates, we can assure our readers of their surpassing beauty, and of their superiority in style and execution to other works of the same class. Mr. Layard's skill as an artist is as strikingly displayed in this volume, as his powers as a writer in his descriptive work. The minuteness of detail which characterizes the Nineveh Sculptures is given with an accuracy and a richness of effect which cannot fail to excite universal admiration.

Such is a brief account of the discoveries of Mr. Layard, and of the two works in which they are embodied and immortalized. Had they been merely the production of a traveller, describing countries and races which every person might visit, and antiquities which every person could see, they would have been studied with deep interest, and would have commanded our admiration of the talents, and learning, and character of their author. The chapters in which he narrates his visit to the Chaldæan Christians, to the Yezidis, and to the different Arab tribes, might have been expanded into an interesting work, even if the ruins of Nineveh had never been mentioned; but forming as they do instructive and amusing episodes,—resting-places, as it were, for the reader's mind, when tired, perchance, by the minutiæ of archæological details, or roused by the successive display of the gigantic remains of a mighty empire, and a primæval age,—the whole work cannot fail to be regarded as one of the most interesting and important that the present century has produced. It is not often that we meet, in the field of literature or science, with high talent, and profound learning, combined with a generous philanthropy, a native modesty, and an elevated tone of moral and religious feeling. Within the volumes which we have been analyzing, our readers will doubtless find ample evidence that their author possesses these estimable qualities; and having had the privilege of personally knowing Mr. Layard, we can gratify them by the assurance that they will have formed a correct estimate of the living man.

The position which our author now occupies in the literary world as a traveller, an antiquary, a scholar, and a vigorous and eloquent writer, has, as such a position usually does, excited an ardent desire, on the part of the public, to know something of his early history, and of the circumstances under which his mind was prepared for such arduous achievements. We are glad to be able to satisfy, to a certain extent, this laudable curiosity. Mr. Layard is descended from a noble Protestant French family, whose representative fled from his native country at the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father, who was the son of the Reverend Dr. Layard, Dean of Bristol, filled a high civil office in Ceylon, between the years 1820 and 1830, and took a great interest in the circulation of the Scriptures among heathen nations. He was a man of considerable classical learning, and of refined tastes. During the youth of his son, he lived at Florence, where our young antiquary had free access to the stores of the Pitti Palace and of the Tribune. He thus became familiar from his infancy with the language of Tuscany, and formed his taste for the fine arts and literature, upon the models of painting and sculpture amid which he lived, and in the rich libraries which he frequented. In this manner did he add a thorough knowledge of modern languages to a competent one of those of ancient Greece and Rome. Here also did Mr. Layard acquire, without knowing be acquired it, a power over his pencil, which long lay dormant, and which was called forth, if not summoned into existence, by the appalling sight of slabs with the noblest sculptures and the finest inscriptions, crumbling into dust before his eyes. No draughtsman had been provided to help him, and had he not instantly determined to arrest by the quickness of his eye, and the magic of his pencil, those fleeting forms which were about to disappear for ever, many of the finest remains of ancient art would have been irrecoverably lost.

When Mr. Layard returned from Italy to his native country, he was urged to choose the profession of the law by a relative, who held out to him considerable inducements to make such a choice. Persuaded to follow this advice, he entered with his usual ardour upon the studies which it required. His aspiring mind, however, refused to be fettered by the drudgery of so inactive a profession. His thirst for knowledge, his love of adventure, and his foreign tastes and habits, conspired against law, and led him, after a brief apprenticeship, to follow the native bias of his mind. He accordingly left England with no very definite object, in the summer of 1839, and, accompanied by a friend, he

visited Russia and several of the Northern kingdoms. Having sojourned for some time in Germany, and several of the States on the Danube, he made himself master of the German language, and of several of the dialects of Transylvania. From Dalmatia he passed into Montenegro, where he remained a considerable time, assisting an able and active young chief in ameliorating the condition of his semi-barbarous subjects. Travelling through Albania and Romelia, where he met with numerous adventures, he arrived at Constantinople about the end of 1839. Here he made arrangements for visiting Asia Minor and different countries in the East; and he spent some years in these interesting regions, adopting the costume, and leading the life, of an Arab of the Desert, and acquiring a thorough knowledge of the manners and languages of Turkey and Arabia. In 1840 or 1841, Mr. Layard transmitted to the Royal Geographical Society, an Itinerary from Constantinople to Aleppo, which does not seem to have been published; and in the eleventh volume of the Journal of that Society, we have an account of the journey which he performed with Mr. Ainsworth in April 1840. He travelled in Persia in the same year, and he projected a journey for the purpose of examining Susa, and some other places of interest in the Bactyari mountains, to which Major Rawlinson had drawn the attention of the Geographical Society. With this view, he left Ispahan in the middle of September, in company with Schiffeer Khan, a Baktyari chief; and having crossed the highest part of the great chain of Mungasht, he visited the ruins of Manjinik, which are of considerable extent, and resemble those of the Sassanian cities. He visited also the ruins in the plain of Mel Amir, and he copied some of the cuneiform inscriptions. The sculptures on the four tablets adjoining the natural cave, two colossal figures on which represent priests of the Magi, appear to be of ancient date. In crossing the hills to Susan, he was attacked by a tribe of Dinarunis, and robbed of his watch, compass, and other articles; but having complained to the Chief, and insisted on the return of every missing article, he received back the whole of his property. It had been his practice to traverse these mountains quite alone, and he was never attacked or insulted, except upon this occasion, when the country was in a state of war. He found scarcely any remains at Susan to indicate the site of a large city. The tomb of Daniel is a comparatively modern building of rough stones,—(it is said to be of mud in another place),—and containing two apartments. In 1842 and 1843, Mr. Layard seems to have spent a considerable time in the province of Kuzistan, an elaborate description of which he communicated through Lord Aberdeen to the Royal Geographical Society. *

It was during these various journeys that Mr. Layard prepared himself for the great task to which his life and talents were to be devoted. In his wanderings through Asia Minor and Syria he had scarcely left a spot untrodden which tradition hallowed, or a ruin unexamined, which was consecrated by history. His companion shared his feelings and his zeal. Unmindful of danger, they rode alone with no other protection than their arms. They tended their own horses, and mixing with the people they acquired their manners and their language.

With these feelings Mr. Layard looked to the banks of the Tigris, and he longed to dispel the mysterious darkness which hung over Assyria and Babylonia. We have already given an account of his preliminary visits to Mosul,—of his inspection of the

ruins of Nimroud and Koyunjik, and of his interview with Sir Stratford Canning at Constantinople, when on his way to England. This eminent individual immediately discovered and appreciated the character and talents of Mr. Layard. His knowledge of the East and of its manners and languages recommended him in a peculiar manner to the notice of our ambassador, who persuaded him to remain with the embassy, and employed him on many important occasions. Sir Stratford took a deep interest in the excavations made by the French Consul, and he permitted and aided Mr. Layard in carrying on those interesting researches which we have already described.

During Mr. Layard's stay in England he suffered severely from the monthly recurrence of an aguish fever, caught in the damp apartments which he was obliged to inhabit at Nimroud; but notwithstanding this indisposition, so unfavourable to intellectual pursuits, he prepared for the press, during his short stay in England, the two works under our notice, and for the trustees of the British Museum a volume of Inscriptions in the cuneiform character, which we trust will soon be published and submitted to the scrutiny of European scholars.

We cannot close Mr. Layard's volumes without giving expression to the feelings which they have excited, and recording our opinion of the vast importance of his discoveries. To the Scripture student, who looks back with an eager interest to the early epochs of his faith, obscured by the mists of truthless legends, and the exaggerations of profane history, and who has studied these events but in the flickering light of prophetic inspiration, the contemplation of Nineveh in its ruins must be a source of inexhaustible delight. In its utter destruction, rendered visible only in its fragments and in its dust, he recognises the inspiration of the prophet that pronounced its doom; and in the crumbling remains which have been preserved inviolate, till the world was wise enough to appreciate them, he sees a step in the great tide of advancing knowledge which is to disclose to our race the hitherto invisible glories of infinite space, and the apparently inaccessible mysteries of primæval time. Already has the disinterment of ancient life carried us back to the cycles of the past—to study the catastrophes and the creations by which the earth was prepared for the reception of man. The relics of those mysterious times have been embalmed and preserved amid the desolations of flood and of fire, and we at present know more of the structures of organic life which preceded the creation of man, than of those of the early period of our own current cycle. The antiquary, however, is now rivalling the geologist, and the buried relics of even the most ancient age will doubtless be gradually recovered from their subterranean abode. Hillocks leap'd On what were chambers, arch crush'd, column strown In fragments, choked-up vaults and frescoes steep'd In subterranean damps, where the owl peep'd Deeming it midnight; Temples, baths, or halls, are now surrendering their contents, or telling the story of their birth. From the mounds of Babylon, as from those of Nineveh, we shall yet recover her monuments, and indite her annals of idolatry and crime; and even the antediluvian age may yield to the scrutiny of another century the scanty materials of her history, and the pristine monuments of her skill. The first city—the city of Enoch, may yet be surveyed, in stone or in dust, beneath some nameless heap, where the Armenian shepherd now feeds his flocks; and the brass and iron utensils of Tubal-cain may yet exhibit to us the infant ingenuity of our race. The planks of Gopher-wood which floated Noah over the universe of waters may yet rise from the flanks or the base of Ararat in lignite or in coal; and the first altar—that which Noah "builded " to his Maker and Preserver, may yet be thrown up from its burying-place by the mighty earthquakes that shake the plain of Araxes.

But while we thus hail the light which the future is to throw upon the past, let us not shut our eyes against the radiance which the past throws upon the future. If the "cedar of Lebanon," with "fallen branches" and broken boughs, has been cut off from "the land," let "the trees of the field" take warning lest they also be "delivered unto death." If Nineveh, "full of lies and robbery," has been devoured by fire—if God "made its grave," "because it was vile," what will be the fate of the "bloody cities" of modern times that are deaf to the preaching of a greater than Jonah, and "turn not from the violence that is in their hands!" The history of empires promulgates the stern and immutable decree that the most powerful of them must fall. From this sentence there has been hitherto no respite; and in the characters of princes, and nations, and men, we can discover no reasons for its repeal.

To a more serene and distant future, however, the anxious spirit looks forward with less dismay. It longs for "the wings of a dove, that it may flee away and be at

rest." Beyond the convulsions of Nature's elements;—out of the reach of human passions;—undisturbed by the ferocious will of man, and unstained by his bloody deeds, the eye of faith descries a city which cannot be moved—the goal of the sage—the resting-place of the pilgrim—the tabernacle of the saints. The tree of life is not sculptured upon its walls—nor the deeds of its King emblazoned upon its marbles. No manacled slave excites the sympathy of the triumphant throng. Its ransomed captives shine in white robes—kings and priests unto God. From this azure bourne man seeks not to return. The globe of earth—the cradle of his race, beyond which the child of suffering and crime has but seldom looked—now looms in his horizon, a minute and twinkling star,—the community of worlds to which it belongs stands out in all its magnitude and glory, and in the Unfathomable Infinite he sees, in their full development, the mighty attributes of wisdom, benevolence, and power.

THE history of the Papacy constitutes a large portion of the history of Modern Europe; and in all its various aspects, and in all its different departments, it is invested with peculiar interest. For a period of about a thousand years, the history of the Papacy is virtually the history of Christianity; and for a longer period it has embraced many of the events and influences that bore most powerfully and extensively upon the interests of literature, civilisation, and general politics, as well as of religion and morality. The history of the rise and progress of the papacy presents a singularly interesting subject of contemplation, and is fitted to suggest many important and useful lessons. That a succession of men in one place, calling themselves ministers of Christ, and professing to act in his name and for the accomplishment of his purposes, should have succeeded in getting themselves recognised over nearly all Christendom as the vice-gerents of Christ on earth, and the monarchs of his whole Church, and that they should not only have become temporal princes, but should also have claimed the right, and acquired the power, of disposing of crowns and kingdoms, must appear very extraordinary to any one who has formed his views of the ends of Christ's mission, and of the constitution and objects of His kingdom, from the statements of the New Testament. And, independently altogether of the bearing of this subject upon theological discussions and religious interests, the history of the Papacy, as a mere series of events, viewed in connexion with their causes and their consequences, exhibits a great deal that is fitted to occupy and to interest the historian and the philosopher. In former times the history of the Papacy was very fully discussed as an important branch of the controversy between Protestants and Romanists; Protestants professing to find in the history of the Church of Rome a great deal to refute the Romish interpretation of our Saviour's promises concerning his Church, and of the claims which the Romish See had been long accustomed to put forth; and Romanists endeavouring to defend themselves as well as they could against the blows aimed at them from this quarter. The leading Popish positions connected with this subject are these—1st, That Christ's statements and promises concerning his Church necessarily imply that there should always exist upon earth, in unbroken succession, a wide-spread, easily recognisable, society, which should always maintain in perfect purity the doctrines which he and his apostles taught, and the ordinances which they established; and, 2d, That, in point of fact, all this has been fully realized and exhibited in the Church of Rome. Protestants, on the other hand, contend—1st, That Christ's promises do not necessarily imply the continued and permanent existence of such a society; 2d, That, in point of fact, no such society can be traced in unbroken succession in any one part of the Christian world; and, 3d, That this character does not apply to the Papacy or the Church of Rome. In accordance with their fundamental principles, Protestants establish these positions by an appeal to Scripture, by fairly investigating the meaning of its statements, and by bringing all the doctrines and transactions which the history of the Church presents to be tried by the written Word. But they can produce a great deal from the mere history of the Papacy which, even independently of Scripture, tends greatly to confirm these conclusions, and to overturn the claims of the Church of Rome to the possession of the qualities of unity, sanctity, catholicity, and apostolicity, which Romanists

usually put forth as the distinguishing marks of the true Church. An honest investigation of the history of the Church is conclusively fatal to the pretensions of the Church of Rome to the possession of these qualities. It affords abundant materials to prove, that the Church of Rome has varied greatly in different ages in its doctrines, government, and worship; that it has always been, and still is, characterized by a want of internal unity on some subjects of importance; that it has been pre-eminently distinguished for a long succession of ages by its want of sanctity, by its unscrupulous prosecution of its own selfish interests as distinguished from the legitimate objects of a Church of Christ, and its unprincipled violation of the laws of God and man in the promotion of these interests; and, lastly, that its present system of doctrine, government, and worship was not that which was taught and established by the apostles. The proof of this last position from the history of the Church, as distinguished from the proof of it from a direct comparison of the present doctrines and practices of the Church of Rome with statements of Scripture, consists of the evidence which Protestants have adduced, that some of the Romish doctrines and practices were first broached and introduced into the Church at a certain specified time, and that others, the precise origin of which cannot, from want of materials, be so clearly traced and so certainly established, were unknown in the Church at a particular specified period, and are thus cut off from all connexion with the teaching of the apostles. It was the conclusive establishment of these positions, and especially the impossibility of disputing them amid the light thrown upon the subject by the profound historical investigations which have of late been prosecuted upon the Continent, that led to the invention, by Moehler and De Maistre, of the Theory of Development, which has been so fully unfolded by Mr. Newman. This theory is in substance just an ingenious evasion of the proper direct historical argument, for it is chiefly employed as a substitute for the proof which formerly Romanists felt themselves bound to produce, that their present system of doctrines and practices had been handed down from apostolic times, and for the answers which they admitted they were bound to furnish to the historical evidence adduced by Protestants, that many of these doctrines and practices were the inventions of later ages.

But many of the investigations which have of late been prosecuted on the Continent in connexion with the history of the Church of Rome and the Middle Ages, have not been exclusively directed to controversial purposes, to the object of affording materials for settling the theological questions which are agitated between Protestants and Romanists. The subject has been investigated fully, and in some instances fairly and impartially, in its merely historical as distinguished from its theological aspects, in its bearing upon literature and the fine arts, upon the progress of society, upon civilisation and government. The impartiality exhibited in the investigation of these topics, in connexion with the history of the Papacy and the Middle Ages, is to be found indeed chiefly in writers who have borne the name of Protestants, and the cause of this is partly, that not a few bear that name who know and care nothing about Protestantism in its religious or theological sense, but principally, that honest and intelligent Protestants know that these topics have no real bearing upon the theological questions at issue between them and the Church of Rome, and are therefore under no temptation to conceal or misrepresent the testimony of history regarding them. It may be true that the Papacy has on some occasions rendered services to the cause of literature and the fine arts, has contributed to the progress of civilisation and the establishment of good government; but though all this were proved, and though nothing could be established under these heads to counterbalance the services rendered, so far as concerned the temporal welfare of men and the improvement of society, this would not afford a proof, and not even a presumption, that Popery was the religion of Christ and his apostles, or that the bishops of Rome are authorized to rule the universal Church as the successors of Peter and the vicars of Christ.

Romanists, however, have diligently and skilfully employed these various topics, and the admissions of Protestant writers concerning them, to prepossess men's minds in favour of the doctrines and practices of Popery as a religious and theological system and in favour of the claims of the Bishops of Rome to universal supremacy, and there can be no reasonable doubt that this is one of the means by which they have succeeded in the present day in securing a large measure of favour and countenance for Popery and the Papacy, from men who, though calling themselves Protestants, know nothing of what Protestantism is, or of what are the grounds on which it rests.

The leading objects to which the labours of Romish writers upon the Continent are now usually directed in the department of historical investigation, are to explain away

World as [covered]COMPREHENSIVE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY [cutaway]

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

INTRODUCTION: DEFINITIONS.

Lesson II... Shape of the Earth.

1. The Shape of the Earth is that of a globe, ball, or sphere.

2. It is found, however, by calculation, that the earth is not a perfect sphere: it is flattened at the poles, so as to be twenty-six miles more in diameter at the equator than at the poles, and hence is called an oblate spheroid.

3. In the early ages of the world, mankind supposed the earth to be a vast plain, terminating on all sides in a shoreless sea, or a region of darkness. This idea prevailed till about 400 years ago, when the true form of the earth was ascertained—though some philosophers seem to have suspected the globular form of the earth at an earlier date.

4. The spherical or globular shape of the earth is proved in many ways. 1. Persons have frequently been round the world, as a fly is seen to creep round an apple. Ships are in the constant habit of sailing round the earth. 2. When you are upon the top of a high mountain, you can see that the land and sea slope away on all sides, as if you stood on the top of a vast globe. 3. The sea is observed to be globular, for the masts of a ship are seen first in the distance, and the hull afterwards. 4. An eclipse of the moon is occasioned by the earth coming between the sun and moon, and casting its shadow upon the latter. This shadow of the earth is always observed to be circular.

5. The earth is surrounded by a thin transparent element, called the air or atmosphere, which exhibits the phenomena of rain, snow, clouds, &c. The solid body of the earth is composed of matter in many forms—as soil, rocks, fire, vapor, water vegetables, animals, &c. All these are kept together by a principle

LESSON I. QUESTIONS—1. What is geography? 2. What of astronomy? What of geology? 3. What is history? 4. What does it mean, in its fullest extent? How is it divided? What of topography?

LESSON II. 1. What is the shape of the earth? 2. How is the earth flattened at the poles? What is it hence called? 3. What idea had the ancients respecting the earth? When was the true form of the earth ascertained? 4. How is the globular form of the earth

2 [begin surface 179] 10 MOTIONS AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH, &c. View of the Earth, as seen from the Moon.

of attraction called gravitation. The operation of this is easily illustrated.

6. If we throw a stone into the air, it falls to the earth; that is, it is drawn back to the earth by attraction or gravitation. It is this power, or principle, which keeps the hills, rocks, houses, cities, and seas, steadfast on the earth. This principle never fails. It operates at all times, and in all places, over the whole surface of the globe, so that, upon whichever side we may be, we are kept upon it. Thus it is that every part of the surface of the world is habitable by man and animals.

Lesson V... Latitude, Longitude, &c.

1. The lines on an artificial globe represent the equator, longitude, latitude, the tropics, &c.

2. The equator is an imaginary line drawn round the middle of the earth, thus dividing it into two equal parts or hemispheres. This line is, at all points, just 90 degrees, or about 6250 miles, from each of the poles.

3. The line marked tropic of Cancer is 23 1/2 degrees, or about 1637 miles, north of the equator. The line marked tropic of Capricorn is the same distance south of the equator.

4. The Arctic circle is 23½ degrees from the north pole. The Antartic circle is the same distance from the south pole.

5. The latitude of a place is its distance from the equator. This is measured by degrees, each degree being 60 geographical miles, or 69¼ common miles. The lines of latitude run east and west, and are parallel to each other. Places north of the equator are in north latitude; places south of it are in south latitude. The degrees of latitude are numbered on the sides of a map.

proved? 5. What of the air?—composition of the earth? 6. What is gravitation?

LESSON III. 1. What two motions has the earth? What of the planets, and other heavenly bodies? What effect has the diurnal motion?—the annual? 2. What are the poles? What is the orbit? How rapidly does the surface of the earth move in its diurnal revolution? What of its annual revolution? 3. What is the magnitude of the earth?

LESSON IV. 1. What of globes and maps? 2. What of artificial globes? 3. What are maps? 4. What of the bending lines on maps? What of general maps? What do we find on a map of the Western Hemisphere? On the Eastern? What of particular maps? 5. What of the top of a map?—the right hand, &c.?

LESSON V. 1. What do the lines on an artificial globe represent? 2. What is the equator? 3. What of the tropic of Cancer?—tropic of Capricorn? 4. What of the Arctic circle?—the Antarctic? 5. What of latitude? 6. Longitude? 7. From what point is longitude reckoned? 8. What of the degrees of longitude?

[begin surface 180] WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 11 The Western Hemisphere.

6. Longitude is the distance of a place east or west from the point of reckoning.

7. The common point of beginning to reckon longitude is Greenwich, near London, in England; though most of our maps also reckon from Washington, the capital of the United States.

8. The degrees of longitude, on globe maps, are marked at the equator, and are there the same as the degrees of latitude; but, as we go north or south, the meridians approach each other, and unite at the poles. One hundred and eighty degrees of longitude go half round the world. If the numbers increase to the east, they denote east longitude: if toward the west, they denote west longitude.

Lesson VI... Zones and Climates.

1. The earth is divided into five belts, or zones. 2. The torrid or hot zone lies between the northern and southern limits of the tropics; the two temperate zones lie, one north of the tropic of Cancer, and one south of the tropic of Capricorn; the two frigid zones lie, one north of the Arctic circle, and the other south of the Antarctic circle.

3. The torrid zone is about 3243 miles wide, and extends like a broad belt around the whole earth. It derives its name from the great heat which prevails here, at all times. 4. There is never snow or frost here. The climate, or general character of the weather, is always warm; and instead of the seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter, there are but two seasons, the wet and the dry. The wet season is called winter, and the dry season, summer.

5. The vegetation in the tropical regions is generally luxuriant. Fine fruits—such as oranges, lemons, pine-apples, cocoa-nuts, and rich melons—abound; and often the ripe fruit and opening blossom hang side by side, on the same tree. There are also delicious spices—as cinnamon, pepper, cloves, and nutmegs; with other choice productions—such as coffee, sugar, indigo, &c.

Scene in the Torrid Zone.

6. Though thus favored by nature, these regions are subject to terrific whirlwinds, desolating earthquakes, and deadly fevers; while they are the abode of millions of tormenting insects and

LESSON VI. 1. Into what zones, or belts, is the earth divided? 2. What of the five zones? 3. What of the torrid zone? 4. Its climate? 5. Vegetation? 6. Convulsions of nature? Animal life? Inhabitants? 7. What of the temperate zones? 8. Fruits in

[begin surface 181] 12 EASTERN HEMISPHERE. The Eastern Hemisphere.

poisonous reptiles. Here also is the home of the lion and tiger, the giraffe and hippopotamus, the anaconda and the crocodile, the rhinoceros and the elephant.—the giants and wonders of the animal kingdom. The inhabitants of the torrid zone are generally black, or of a dark color. They are, for the most part, indolent and live in slightly-built dwellings.

7. In the temperate zones, the climate is mild, and here are the four seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter.

Scene in a Temperate Zone.

8. The fruits in these zones are grapes, apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, strawberries, &c. The chief vegetable productions are wheat, rye, oats, barley, and maize or Indian corn. In the warm parts, rice and cotton are produced. We here see the ox, horse, ass, camel, sheep, goat, and hog, in a state of domestication; and in the forests, instead of the gigantic rhinoceros and elephant, are the wild boar, wolf, buffalo, elk, deer, fox, and lynx.

9. In the temperate zones, the people have, generally, a light or white skin. In the northern temperate zone, they are marked by industry, intelligence, and energy. Here are the chief seats of human improvement and civilization. Here the people are generally well clad, and, for the most part, live in substantial and comfortable houses.

10. The northern and southern zones are called frigid, from the intense cold which prevails there for the greater part of the year.

11. The southern frigid regions are little known; though it appears that, around the south pole, there is either a continent or a group of numerous islands. The land here is uninhabited, and always covered with snow and ice. The northern frigid regions are better known.

12. There are but two seasons here—a winter of nine months, and a summer of three. Vegetation is confined to mosses, and a few stunted trees, shrubs, and grasses. None but the hardiest animals, such as the reindeer, white bear, musk ox, and a few others, find subsistence in these icy regions. The inhabitants are few in number, of low stature and swarthy complexion, and find their chief subsistence, along the shores of the frozen seas, upon seals, whales, and other marine animals. The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Light, is here seen in the greatest splendor.

the temperate zone? Vegetation? Animals? 9. Inhabitants? 10. What of the two frigid zones? 11. The southern?—the northern? 12. Vegetation? Animals? Inhabitants? What of the Aurora Borealis?

Lesson VIII... Divisions of the Water.

1. There is a great body of salt water surrounding the globe, called the ocean. It covers nearly three- fourths of the surface of the earth. Different portions of this universal sea have received different names.

2. That vast sheet which lies between America on the west, and Europe and Africa on the east, is called the Atlantic Ocean.

3. That which lies between America on the east, and Asia on the west, is called the Pacific.

4. That ocean which lies south of Asia, and between New Holland and Africa, is called the Indian Ocean.

5. The ocean around the north pole is called the Northern or Arctic Ocean, that which lies around the south pole is called the Southern or Antarctic Ocean.

6. A sea is a portion of the ocean nearly inclosed by land, as the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, &c. An archipelago is a sea nearly filled with islands. A bay is a part of a sea or lake extending into the land, as the Bay of Bengal. Large bays are called gulfs, as the Gulf of Mexico.

LESSON VII. 1. What is a continent? 2. What of the two continents? The Antarctic continent? 3. Grand divisions of the eastern continent? The Western? Islands of the Pacific? How are the continents subdivided? 4. What is an island? Examples? 5. What is a peninsula? Examples? 6. What is a cape? Examples? A promontory? 7. What is a mountain? A valley? A plain? 8. What is a range or chain of mountains? Example? 9. What of volcanoes? 10. What is a crater? 12. What is a coast or shore? Borders of rivers? 13. What is a desert? Example? What is an oasis? 14. What of prairies? Plains? Steppes?

LESSON VIII. 1. What is the ocean? What of different parts of the ocean? 2. What of the Pacific? 3. The Atlantic? 4. The Indian? 5. The Arctic? The Antarctic? 6. What is a sea? Examples? An archipelago? A bay? A gulf? 8. A

[begin surface 183] 14 NATURAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. The Sea, Mountains, Volcano, City, &c.

7. Small sheltered bays are called harbors, or ports.

8. A road, or roadstead, for ships, is a part of the open sea, where vessels may ride at anchor in safety. A strait is a narrow passage connecting two bodies of water, as Behring's Strait, the Strait of Gibralter, &c. A channel is a wider passage of a similar kind, as the British Channel. A passage so shallow as to be fathomed by the sounding-line of a ship is called a sound.

9. A lake is a large sheet of fresh water inclosed by land, as Lake Superior. Small lakes are often called ponds, in our country.

10. A river is a large stream of water, as the Mississippi, the Amazon, the Nile, &c. Small streams of water are called brooks, creeks, rivulets, rills, &c.

11. The basin of a river consists of the country from which the water is derived. A great river is usually supplied by many streams, all collecting their water from the slopes which constitute its basin. The land bordering on a river is called its banks, as already stated. The right bank is that on the right side as you descend the stream; the opposite bank is the left.

12. A river which passes swiftly over rocky obstructions is called rapids. When the body of a river pitches over a precipice, it is called a cataract, fall, or cascade. The mouth of a river is its entrance into the sea or other water. When a river enters by several mouths, the land is called delta, from its resemblance, in shape, to the Greek letter of that name.

13. A frith or estuary is the mouth of a river affected by the rising and falling of the tide. A canal is an artificial ditch filled with water, for the passage of boats.

14. We may remark that while rivers, animals, trees, plants, and cities are found on the land, water is the abode of an infinite variety of fishes, from the size of the whale to that of the minnow. The sea, also, has a varied and peculiar vegetation.

Lesson IX... Natural and Political Geography.

1. Geographical topics are frequently viewed under a division into physical and political.

2. In looking round upon the earth, we notice that the mountains and valleys, the lakes, seas, and oceans, are the works of God, or Nature. We observe that cities, roads, ships, are made by men, united into political societies. Geography is, therefore, divided into two parts—natural or physical geography, which describes the works of nature; and political geography, which describes the works and institutions of men in their social capacity.

3. Physical geography describes the soil, climate, mountains, rivers, and seas, of different countries. Political geography describes the people of different countries, their condition, and their works. It describes their government, religion, degree of civilization, modes of building, dress, and traveling; their roads, railroads, canals, towns, cities, and villages; their trade and commerce; their manufactures, agriculture, and other industrial occupations.

4. The earth was created by God to be the abode of myriads of happy creatures, but more especially to be the theater upon which Man is to prepare for a future and immortal existence.

5. The various objects on the earth are divided, by naturalists, into three classes, or kingdoms: the mineral, including the soils, rocks, waters, and all unorganized substances; the vegetable, including trees, plants, and shrubs; and the animal, including all beings which live, feel, and move.

6. Vegetables draw their subsistence from the mineral kingdom, and thus prepare food for animals. Man stands at the head of the animal creation, and freely makes use of all he finds on the earth, that may contribute to his happiness. This privilege is given him by his Creator, and he enforces it by his superior skill and wisdom.

7. Animals are endowed with instincts, which guide them in the pursuit of happiness; but man must reach his maturity and perfection by means of education. Uneducated man is a savage.

roadstead? A strait? Example? A channel? A sound? 9. A lake? A pond? 10. What is a river? Brooks, &c.? 11. What of the basin of a river? How is a river supplied? The banks of a river? 12. What are rapids? Cataracts, &c.? The mouth of a river? What is a delta? 13. What is a frith? A canal? 14. What of animals and vegetables upon the land and in the sea?

LESSON IX. 1. How are geographical topics divided? 2. What of the works of nature, and those of man? 3. What does physical geography describe? Political geography? 4. For what was the earth created by God? 5. Into what three classes are the objects upon the earth divided? 6. What of vegetables? What of man? 7. What of man and animals, as to instinct and education? 8, 9. Illustrate

[begin surface 184] GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, &c. 15 Works of Man.—View of London, Greenwich Railroad, &c.

8. A chicken will run about, and pick up seeds, when a day old; a duck will swim as soon as hatched; a calf, or lamb, will walk about and take its milk from the mother, without help or instruction; in twelve hours after its birth.

9. But an infant is the most helpless of beings. It must be taught to eat, to drink, to walk. Without education, man grows up rude and cruel; with it, he may become an enlightened being, acquainted with many sciences, and familiar with his duty here on earth, and his high destiny hereafter.

10. Mankind are found in various stages of cultivation. Some live chiefly by hunting, and are called savage; some have partially emerged from the savage state, and are called barbarous; and some, having good houses, cities, written laws, and many good institutions, are called refined, enlightened, or civilized.

Lesson XI... Religion.

1. All nations have some religious notions, and few or none are without a general belief in rewards and punishments, bestowed by an overruling Deity, or Providence.

2. The ideas of mankind are, however, very much diversified as to the character of the Deity, and the modes of doing him

this subject by examples. 10. Into what states or stages is human society divided? What of the savage state? The barbarous state? The civilized state? LESSON X. 1. What of different nations? 2. What is a monarchy? A limited monarchy? A despotic monarchy? 3. What is an aristocracy? A democracy? A republic? 4. What is a kingdom? An empire? What are duchies, &c? A patriarchal government? 5. What of districts? 6. Towns, cities, &.? What of the government of cities? The seat of government of a country? Examples?

LESSON XI. 1. What of all nations in respect to religion?

[begin surface 185] 16 OCCUPATIONS OF MANKIND. Mahomet directing his Disciples to Propagate his Religion by the Sword.

homage. The belief in Christianity prevails in Europe, and is embraced by about one-quarter of the human race.

3. Christians are divided into Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, Episcopalians, or those who belong to the English Church, Congregationalists, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Baptists, Methodists, Universalists, Friends, or Quakers, Moravians, &c. Christian places of worship are called churches or meeting-houses.

4. The Jews are the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of Judea. They believe the Old Testament, and maintain the ancient worship of their fathers, but reject the New Testament, and Christianity. Their places of worship are called synagogues.

5. The Mahometans, or Mussulmans, are believers in Mahomet, an Arabian, who pretended to bring a revelation from heaven, called the Koran. This religion predominates in Turkey in Europe, and the western part of Asia. It is also scattered over other parts of Asia, and portions of Africa. Mahometan places of worship are called mosques.

6. The Bramins and Buddhists, or worshipers of the Grand Lama, believe in a deity who holds communion with mankind through many inferior divinities, some of whom are good, and some bad. Of these they have images and idols, which they worship in temples, called pagodas. These religions prevail in the eastern part of Asia.

7. Many ignorant and savage tribes, called pagans, believe in fetishes, or good and bad spirits, which dwell in particular places. They also put faith in idols and amulets. To their gods they pay a kind of worship, which often consists in dances, sacrifices, and other uncouth rites, designed to propitiate them.

8. Christians maintain that all other religions than their own, are untrue; and if we compare the state of society in Christendom with that in other parts of the earth, we shall see that, while Christianity tends to enlighten and elevate the mind, all the heathen religions debase and degrade it.

called manufacturers. Many men learn trades, such as that of the mason, carpenter, blacksmith, &c.: these are called mechanics.

7. Some persons buy and sell different kinds of useful articles. The common business of buying and selling is called trade; that trade which is carried on in ships, or vessels, is called commerce.

8. It is by means of commerce that the products of one country are carried to other countries. By means of commerce, we get tea from China, pepper from Sumatra, coffee from Java, sugar from the West Indies, oranges and lemons from Portugal, figs from Smyrna, silks from France, &c. We give, in exchange for these articles, the products of our own industry.

9. Many persons devote themselves to mining, for the purpose of obtaining coal, iron, tin, copper, gold, and silver; others become fishermen; others huntsmen; others, again, fell trees, for timber.

10. One of the principal occupations of society, in all ages of the world, has been that of war.

11. The profession of the soldier has generally taken precedence of the industrial and productive occupations. Mankind have at last learned, however, that war is generally destructive to the best interests of the people at large, and hence, there is a growing love of peace among all intelligent nations.

12. The productions of a country form an important topic of geography. These are either vegetable, mineral, or animal.

13. The most important vegetable products are wheat, corn, rye, rice, potatoes, cotton, trees for building, medicinal plants, &c. The most important minerals are coal, lead, iron, tin, silver, and gold. The most useful domestic animals are the horse, cow, and sheep. In some countries, the goat and ass are very useful, and in others, the camel and elephant supply the place of the horse.

Lesson XIII... Languages of Mankind.

1. There are many different languages in the world, and even different letters and alphabets.

2. All the languages of Europe have the same letters as our own, except the Greek and Turkish. The following are specimens of some of the principal European languages, given in the first line of the Lord's prayer:—

• 1. English: Our Father, which art in heaven.
• 2. German: Unser Vater, in dem himmel.
• 3. Dutch: Onze Vader, die in de hemelen zijt.
• 4. Latin: Pater noster, qui es in cœlis.
• 5. Italian: Padre nostro, che sei ne' cieli.
• 6. Spanish: Padre nuestro, que estás en los cielos.
• 7. French: Notre Père, qui es aux cieux.

3. In all these languages, the same letters are used: the numeral signs are also the same. As to numbers, they form a universal language for Europe and America: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., though called by different names, convey the same ideas throughout those countries.

4. There are about eighty original languages in the world, with more than three thousand dialects, or branches.

5. The English language, spoken by us, as well as by the people of Great Britain, is the most extensively used of any European tongue; the German is next; the French next; the Italian next; and the Spanish next.

6. The books published in these languages are numerous, and embrace all kinds of literature; as science, law, religion, history, tales, poetry, &c. In these languages, there are newspapers and journals, which rapidly spread intelligence among the people.

7. The rudest tribes of men have language; but many tongues are never used in writing, or in books. The number of dialects among the different American tribes was nearly two thousand; but they all had a general resemblance.

8. There are many books in the Chinese, Persian, and Arabic languages, but they are far inferior to those of Europe.

VIEW OF THE WORLD.

LESSON XIV... GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE.

1. Grand Divisions—The surface of the globe is viewed by geographers under five grand divisions.

2. Extent and Population.—It is supposed to contain 200,000,000 square miles; 50,000,000 of which are land, and 150,000,000 water. The whole number of inhabitants upon the globe is estimated at 1,000,000,000 distributed as follows:

3. Maps.—These are usually so drawn, that the Western Hemisphere contains the American continent, and the Eastern Hemisphere the eastern continent, embracing Europe, Africa, and Asia.

4. Distribution of Land.—In looking at maps of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, it is obvious that by far the larger portion of the land on the globe lies north of the equator, or in the Northern Hemisphere.

5. All North America, the West Indies, a portion of South America, all Europe, Asia, and nearly all Africa, lie in the Northern Hemisphere.

6. The greater part of South America, a small portion of Africa, and the great island of Australia, lie in the Southern Hemisphere.

7. Antarctic Continent.—Land has also been discovered in about latitude 68° south, which has led to the opinion that a large mass extends around the south pole, to which the title of the Antarctic Continent has been given.

8. Population South of the Equator.—In general, it may be stated that not more than 40,000,000 people—that is, not more than one-twentieth of the population of the globe—live south of the equator.

Lesson XV... Historical Outline.

1. Antiquity of the Earth.—By examining the surface of the earth, geologists have come to the conclusion that the globe on which we live has existed for many thousands of years. It appears to have undergone many revolutions, during which there have been several successive creations, by which the whole animal and mineral kingdoms have been changed.

2. Mosaic Creation.—But that creation of which the Bible tells us, when the present continents and oceans were formed, and when the present races of animals, with Man himself, were made by God, took place nearly 6,000 years ago.

3. Earth prepared for Man.—Previous to this time, no human beings had existed on the earth. Various kinds of animals had lived and perished; vegetation had overspread the face of nature; but, as yet, there had been no tenant of the globe endowed with intelligence sufficient to understand and appreciate the ways of Providence: but at last the earth was fitted and prepared to be the abode of man.

4. Adam and Eve.—And now God created Adam and Eve. At this point of time, the history of the human race begins. We are entirely indebted to the first books of the Old Testament for an account of the creation, and the history of the world for 2000 years after that event. The

history of subsequent ages is made up from inscriptions upon monuments, the remains of sculpture, and from manuscripts, and documents of various kinds.

5. Cain and Abel.—The Bible informs us that Adam and Eve had several children; the first of whom was Cain, and the next Abel. These quarreled, and Cain killed his brother: a terrible event, foreshadowing that strife which, in all ages, has filled the history of mankind with records of battle and bloodshed.

6. The Deluge.—The place where Adam and his immediate descendants lived, was in the western part of Asia, where the climate was warm, and the soil fruitful; and as many of them lived to the age of eight or nine hundred years, they increased rapidly, and built large and populous cities. But they became very wicked, and the race was cut off by a Deluge, or Flood, 2348 years before Christ, or 1656 years after the creation.

7. Noah—Babel.—Noah and his family, with pairs of the various animals, were saved in an Ark, which he built by command of God. These persons settled in the valley of the Euphrates, and their descendants began to build a tower, called Babel, which should reach to the skies. But they were punished for their vanity, for, in the midst of their work, their language was confounded, so that the workmen could not understand each other. This event, called the Confusion of Tongues, took place 2247 years before Christ.

Lesson XVI...Dispersion of Mankind.

1. Emigration.—At this very early period, various bands of emigrants left the valley of the Euphrates, and settled in different parts of Asia. Some also proceeded to Africa, and founded the kingdom of Egypt, 2188 B. C.

2. After several centuries, other companies established themselves in Europe; still later, various tribes found their way to the islands of the Pacific, and at last to America. Thus the Five Grand Divisions of the earth were peopled by the descendants of Adam and Eve.

3. Varieties among mankind.—At the present time, we find mankind not only differing in government, religion, manners, and customs, but also in personal appearance, in intelligence, character, and language. These varieties are supposed to be the result of difference in climate, food, government, and modes of life.

4. Assyria.—Although large numbers of people emigrated from the valley of the Euphrates, it appears that multitudes remained, and here the first great empire began, 2229 B. C. This was called ASSYRIA, and its capital bore the name of Nineveh. The latter became a mighty city, with at least half a million of inhabitants; but it is now a heap of ruins—its houses, temples, and palaces being buried beneath the soil.

5. Babylon.—Babylon was another great city, founded in these ancient times, and at no great distance from Nineveh. It became the most splendid city in the world, and is often mentioned in the Bible. This, too, has perished. Where kings, and queens, and princes once dwelt, the wolf and the jackal, the owl and the bat, find a secure retreat.

6. Origin and Progress of Civilization.—It appears that civilization had thus its beginning in Western Asia. Here mankind first formed society, and organized government, and made progress in the arts and sciences. At no distant day, Egypt became the most enlightened, cultivated, and civilized country in the world. At a later period, the arts and sciences passed into Europe, where they were carried to a higher pitch than they had been before. America was discovered at a later date, and hither European civilization was gradually transplanted.

Lesson XVII... Western Hemisphere.

1. Extent.—This hemisphere contains the Continent of America, with a portion of the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and of the Pacific on the west.

2. America.—This is supposed to be separated from Greenland and the land to the north, by the Arctic seas, and, therefore, to be entirely surrounded by several oceans. The Atlantic washes it on the east, and the Pacific on the west.

3. Length and Width.—The length of the American continent is about nine thousand miles. Its width is very unequal, varying from forty to three thousand miles. From the United States to Europe, across the Atlantic, it is about three thousand miles; to Asia, across the Pacific, it is about ten thousand miles. The eastern and western continents come near together at Behring's Strait, which is about forty miles wide, at the narrowest point.

4. Characteristics.—America is distinguished for its vast lakes, its mighty rivers, and the longest chain of mountains in the world. The latter extends from Cape Horn to the Arctic circle, and is nine thousand miles in length. The two chief rivers are the Mississippi and the Amazon. The largest lake is Lake Superior.

5. Divisions.—The American continent is nearly divided, by the Gulf of Mexico, into North and South America. The Isthmus of Darien, which unites the great peninsula of South America to the northern part of the continent, is but about 40 miles wide, at the narrowest part.

6. Climate—Products.—America extends through all the zones, and furnishes a great variety of vegetable and animal products. It also affords rich mines of gold, silver, diamonds, lead, iron, &c.

7. Domestic Animals, &c.—The horse, ox, sheep, goat, domestic cat, hen, &c., were not originally found in America, but were introduced by the Europeans. The potato, tobacco, and some other plants, were unknown till found on this continent; but wheat, rye, oats, barley, apples, pears, peaches, and many other things, were first brought hither by the white settlers.

8. History—The Northmen.—About the year 1000 A. D., America appears to have been discovered by some people from Iceland, descendants of the Northmen. They made settlements upon the coast, but soon left the country, and nothing was generally known of their adventures.

9. Columbus' First Discovery.—About 500 years after this, Christopher Columbus sailed, under the patronage of the king and queen of Spain, to make discoveries in the Atlantic. In October, 1492, he came in sight of one of the West India Islands. He afterwards visited Cuba and Hayti, and then returned to Spain, carrying the intelligence of his adventures. Thus the people of Europe gained their first knowledge of the Western Continent, to which they gave the name of the New World.

10. The Continent Explored.—Columbus made several voyages to America, and other navigators followed, so that the eastern coasts of the whole continent were soon explored. In the year 1513, a Spaniard, by the name of Balboa, discovered the Pacific Ocean.

11. Division of the Territory.—The European nations soon took possession of North and South America. Spain seized upon the larger portion; Portugal acquired the vast country which now constitutes the empire of Brazil; England made settlements along the coast, from Georgia to Maine; and France took possession of Canada and the valley of the Mississippi.

12. Indians.—When America was discovered by Columbus, it was found to be inhabited by a peculiar race of people, who received the name of Indians. They were mostly in a savage state; but two great empires, Mexico and Peru, had made some advances in civilization. The Indians were subdued, and the white races became the ruling people throughout the continent.

Lesson XVIII... Exercises on Map of Western Hemisphere.

How is America bounded on the north? East? South? West?

Where is Baffin's Bay? Hudson's Bay? Gulf of Mexico? Caribbean Sea? Behring's Straits? Where is Greenland? Newfoundland?

What cape forms the most eastern part of America? The most southern?

Where is the peninsula of Florida? Of Alaska?

What isthmus connects the peninsula of North America with South America?

Where is the Andes range of mountains? The Cordilleras? The Rocky Mountains?

Through what part of South America does the equator run?

What countries lie between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer?

What countries lie between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle?

What countries lie between the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn? What between the Tropic of Cancer and the Antarctic Circle?

Extent of America? Population? The same of North America? South America?

Lesson XIX... Exercises on Map of Eastern Hemisphere.

What continent is embraced in the Eastern Hemisphere? What great island is in the Eastern Hemisphere?

What three grand divisions are embraced in the Eastern Continent? Boundaries of Europe? Asia? Africa?

Where is the Mediterranean Sea? Red Sea? Arabian Sea? Bay of Bengal?

What cape at the northern extremity of Europe? At the western point of Africa? At the southern point of Africa?

In what part of Asia are the Himmaleh mountains? Where is the desert of Cobi? Where is the great desert of Sahara?

By what isthmus is the great peninsula of Africa connected with the continent? What two peninsulas form the southern part of Asia?

Name the principal countries and islands which lie within the torrid zone.

Name the principal countries and islands which lie within the north temperate zone.

Name the principal countries and islands which lie within the south temperate zone.

Extent of Europe? Population? The same of Africa, Asia, &c.?

Lesson XX... Eastern Hemisphere.

1. Comparative Extent and Population.—The Eastern Hemisphere contains nearly twice as much land as the Western, and nearly twenty times as many people. Its greatest length is about 6000 miles, and its greatest width about 6500.

2. Divisions.—The Eastern Continent is entirely surrounded by the ocean, being separated from America by Behring's Straits. It contains Europe, Asia, and Africa; also Australia, or New Holland, which is about as extensive as the United States, and is the largest island in the world.

3. Zones and Climates.—The whole of Europe, and the greater part of Asia, lie within the northern temperate zone. These countries have, for the most part, a mild climate: the northern portions are cold, and the southern warm.

4. Vegetation.—The vegetation of Europe and Asia is similar. The animals of Europe and Northern Asia are the same. In Southern Asia, there are lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, and other animals, common to hot regions.

5. Africa.—The greater part of Africa lies within the tropics, and here are the hottest portions of the globe. The country is remarkable for many curious animals, and a peculiar race of people, called Negroes.

6. New Holland lies near the equator, and has a mild climate, with vegetable and animal products not found elsewhere. Extensive gold mines were discovered in 1851.

7. History.—As we have already stated, the human race began their career in the Eastern Continent, and very near its center. By looking on the annexed map, it will be perceived that the place selected by Providence for the cradle of the human family was very peculiar.

8. Eden, &c.—It was on a territory about 1200 miles long, and 700 wide, inclosed between the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea, that the Garden of Eden, the first great Empires, and the principal places mentioned in the Bible, existed.

9. There is not another spot on the globe so favorable to the increase of mankind, and the rapid development of society and its various institutions, as this. It bordered upon the northern tropic, and the people had every possible advantage of climate.

10. It was encircled by no less than six seas and gulfs favorable to navigation. It was intersected by numerous streams, and teemed with all the diversified products of the vegetable, mineral, and animal kingdoms. It was the Eden of the World, and an omniscient Providence selected it as the paradise of the first human pair.

11. The East.—Even now, after ages of oppression, nature here still bears the traces of its original beauty. Under the title of The East, it is thus celebrated by the poet: "Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime; Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime? Know ye the land of the cedar and vine? Where the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine; Where the light wings of Zephyr, oppressed with perfume, Wax faint o'er the gardens of Gall in her bloom; Where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit, And the voice of the nightingale never is mute; Where the tints of the earth, and the hues of the sky, In color though varied, in beauty may vie, And the purple of ocean is deepest in dye; Where the virgins are soft as the roses they twine, And all, save the spirit of Man, is divine? 'Tis the clime of the East—'tis the land of the Sun :— Can he smile on such deeds as his children have done?"

12. Emigration.—We have already remarked that, after the dispersion from Babel, the population seemed to flow in all directions—Asia being first settled, then Africa, and then Europe. The history of these several portions of the Eastern Continent will be given under their separate heads.

Exercises on Map of North America

Boundaries of North America? Extent? Population? Population to square mile? Boundaries of Russian America? British America? United States? Mexico? Guatimala?

Describe the following islands; North Georgia Isle; Melville Island; Iceland; Greenland; Newfoundland; Cape Breton; Cuba.

Describe the following; Baffin's Bay; Davis' Straight; Hudson's Bay; Strait of Bellisle; Chesapeake Bay; Gulf of Mexico; Caribbean Sea; Gulf of California; Behring's Strait.

Describe the following mountains: Alleghany; Mexican Cordilleras; Rocky Mountains.

Describe the following lakes: Superior; Michigan; Great Slave, Great Bear; Winnipeg.

Describe the following peninsulas: Labrador; Florida; Yucatan; Old California; Alaska.

Describe the following rivers: Mississippi; St. Lawrence; Del Norte; Colorado; Mackenzie's.

Direction of the following from Washington; Lichtenfels; Quebec[illegible] Havana; Mexico; San Francisco; Russian Amer[illegible]

NORTH AMERICA.

[begin surface 203] 26 UNITED STATES. Extent, 3,306,865 miles.—Population in 1850, 23,191,876.—Population to the square mile, 7.01. Map of the United States.

Lesson XXII... The United States.

1. Characteristics.—The United States occupy the middle part of North America, and are remarkable as being the most enlightened and populous country in America, and the most powerful republic in the world.

2. Extent.—They extend about 2700 miles in length, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Their width, from north to south, is about 1400 miles.

3. Climate and Products.—Reaching through more than 20 degrees of latitude, the climate is greatly varied. In the northern parts, the winter is severe, and lasts six months of the year. Here the chief products are grain of various kinds, grass, apples, pears, &c. The people, driven to industry by the soil and climate, devote a large share of their attention to manufactures, commerce, and fisheries.

4. In the middle portions, wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, and various fruits, are cultivated with success. The sugar-maple flourishes, and thousands of pounds of maple sugar are annually produced. In the southern portions, the climate is hot, and tobacco, cotton, rice, oranges, figs, &c., abound.

5. Soil.—This is greatly diversified. Some portions are barren, but a large share of the land is highly prolific. The great valley of the Mississippi, as already stated, is one of the most fruitful regions on the face of the earth.

6. Mountains.—Two principal ranges of mountains cross the United States. The Apalachian chain extends from Georgia to Maine, and includes the Cumberland Mountains of Tennessee, the Alleghanies of Pennsylvania, the Catskills of New York, and the Green Mountain range of New England. The other great range is that of the Rocky Mountains. This table lists the height of the following United States mountain ranges: Rocky Mountains, White Mountains, Ozark, Peaks of Otter, Virginia, and Catskill.

7. Rivers.—The great rivers of the United States lie in the basin of the Mississippi. Those which flow into the Mississippi from the west have their sources in the Rocky Mountains; those which flow into it from the east have their sources in the Apalachian chain. In the various spurs and branches of the latter, the rivers which empty into the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, also take their rise. This table lists the lengths of the following United States rivers: Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Columbia.

8. Lakes.—The Great Lakes, which lie partly within the United States, form a grand feature of our continent, and present the extraordinary spectacle of inland seas of fresh water, sufficient in extent to become the theater of battles between hostile navies, and the scene of the most busy and thriving commerce. The shipping upon Lake Erie is now greater than that of the whole United States at the beginning of the Revolution.

9. Inhabitants—Language.—The population of the United States consists chiefly of whites, the descendants

LESSON XXII 1. Characteristics of the United States? 2. Extent? 3, 4. Climate and products? 5. Soil? 6. Mountains? Highest peaks? 7. Rivers? Length? 8. Lakes? 9. Inhabitants? Language? 10. Indians? 11. Government? 12.Sections?

[begin surface 204] UNITED STATES. 27

of Europeans; the remainder are Indians and Negroes. The whites are chiefly of English descent, and the English language is nearly universal. The white settlements extend from the Atlantic to a considerable distance west of the Mississippi. The negroes are about three millions in number, and the larger part are slaves.

10. Indians.—The Indians are greatly reduced from their original population, and probably do not exceed four hundred thousand. There are few of them east of the Mississippi; but in the Western Territories they are numerous. Some of them have partly adopted the habits of civilized life, but many of them still make hunting and war their chief pursuits.

11. Government.—The government of the United States is a Federal Republic—that is, one general republic, formed of about thirty smaller republics.

12. Division into Four Sections.—Though the United States are generally viewed under four sections, as the Eastern, Middle, Western, and Southern, yet this is only an arrangement for the convenience of geographical description.

13. The Separate States.—Each of the United States is a republic, and has a distinct government, consisting of a Governor, Senate, and House of Representatives. These make local laws for the several states, and attend to their local interests. All the officers of the state and general governments are, directly or indirectly, chosen by the people.

14. Officers of the General Government.—The General Government of the United States consists of a President, Senate, and House of Representatives, who govern the United States, so far as their national interests are concerned.

15. Their Powers and Duties.—They manage affairs with foreign nations; make peace and war; control the army and navy; regulate commerce; sustain the post-office establishment, &c. The powers of the government are laid down in a document called the Federal Constitution, because it unites, or leagues, several distinct states, or republics, into one grand republic.

16. Religion.—All religions are tolerated in the United States, and every person is at liberty to worship God according to the dictates of his conscience. The most numerous persuasions are the Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. There are also many Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, Universalists, Lutherans, Moravians, &c., to which may now be added the new sect called Mormons.

17. Industrial Pursuits.—The leading occupation of the people of the United States is agriculture. The Southern and Western States are chiefly agricultural. The Middle States are largely concerned in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. Manufactures and commerce form leading pursuits in New England, though agriculture and the fisheries are considerable sources of wealth.

18. Capital of the United States.—The seat of the general government is at Washington. This city is in the District of Columbia, between Maryland and Virginia. Congress, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives, meets here every winter, to make laws.

19. Cities.—The following is a list of the chief cities of the United States, with their population: This table lists the populations of the following United States cities: New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, New Orleans, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Lowell.

20. Distances from Washington: This table lists the distance from Washington in miles of the following cities: New York, Augusta, New Orleans, Austin, Astoria, Quebec, Havana, and San Francisco.

21. Steam Navigation.—The great lakes and numerous rivers of this country afford immense advantages for internal navigation. Steam navigation, which was first practised in the United States, is carried to a higher degree of perfection here than elsewhere.

22. Internal Improvements.—Canals are numerous, and lines of railroad cross the country in every direction. The National Road, built by the general government, extends from Cumberland, in Maryland, westward, crossing the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, to Missouri. Lines of magnetic telegraphs extend through the whole length of the country, from Maine to New Orleans.

23. Physical Sections.—From a general view of the United States, as presented by the large map, pages 28 and 29, we perceive that it is divided into three physical sections—the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the Great Central Valley of the Mississippi.

24. Atlantic Slope.—This is a narrow tract two or three hundred miles in width, having the Atlantic on the east, and the Apalachian chain on the west. Toward the sea, this territory is generally low and level; toward the mountains, it becomes elevated into hills and ridges. The whole tract is crossed by short rivers rising in the high lands, and pouring their waters into the Atlantic, or the Gulf of Mexico.

25. Pacific Slope.—This is bounded by the Pacific on the west, and the Rocky Mountains on the east. It is divided into two sections by a range of mountains running north and south, about 150 miles from the coast. The chief rivers of this region are the Colorado, which empties into the Gulf of California, with the San Joaquin, Sacramento, and Columbia, which empty into the Pacific.

26. The Mississippi Valley.—This contains nearly two-thirds of the territory of the United States; it is one of the most fertile tracts in the world, and is supposed to be capable of sustaining a population of 500,000,000. The whole of the Mississippi, the largest river in the world, lies within this valley, and four of its tributaries would be ranked among the largest streams in Europe.

27. Education.—This great instrument of human improvement is highly appreciated, and National Education is regarded, in all the states, as an object of the first consideration. In the single state of New York, there are nearly 11,000 common schools. At the same time, it may be remarked that colleges and higher seminaries are more numerous here than in any other country in the world.

28. Progressive Population.—The population of the United States doubles in about twenty-five years. In 1776, when our Declaration of Independence was made, we had three millions; in 1850, we had 23 millions; in 1900, we shall probably have 75 millions—a population beyond that of any other government, save that of China.

13. Separate states? 14. Officers of the general government? 15. Their powers and duties? 16. Religion? 17. Industrial pursuits? 18. Capital of the United States? 19. Cities? 20. Distances from Washington? 21. Steam Navigation? 22. Internal improvements? 23. What of three physical sections? 24. The Atlantic Slope? 25. The Pacific Slope? 26. Mississippi Valley? Mississippi River? 27. Education? 28. Progressive population?

[begin surface 205] UNITED STATES Map of the United states including mountains, rivers, etc. Exercises on the Map of the United States

☞The teacher will omit or extend these questions, according to his judgment.

Boundaries of the United States? Extent? Population? Population to the square mile? What mountains in the eastern part? What mountains in the western? What great river nearly in the centre of the United States? Latitude and longitude of Washington? How many degrees of latitude are occupied by the United States? How many degrees of longitude?

Capes.—Describe the following: Cape Cod; Cape Henry; Cape Charles; Cape Hatteras; Cape Lookout; Cape Fear; Cape Florida; Cape Conception; Cape Blanco; Cape Flattery.

Bays.—Describe the following bays: Delaware; Savannah; Apalachee; Pensacola; Burataria; Galveston; Matagorda; Santos; Monterey; San Francisco.

Mountains.—Where are the following mountains? Cumberland; Black; Blue Ridge; Alleghany; Green; Ozark; Rocky Mountains; Green; Spanish Peak; Black Hills; Fremont's Peak; Wahsatch; Mount Olympus; Mount Rainer; Snowy Range; Coast Range.

Lakes.—Where are the following? Superior; Michigan; Huron; Erie; Ontario; Great Salt.

Rivers.—Describe each of the following rivers: 1. THOSE WHICH FLOW INTO THE ATLANTIC—Kennebec; Connecticut; Hudson; Delaware; Potomac; James; Roanoke; Cape Fear; Savannah; Oconee; Ogechee; Oakmulgee.

2. THOSE WHICH FLOW INTO THE GULF OF MEXICO—Apalachicola; Black Warrior; Pascagoula; Pearl; Mississippi; Sabine; Trinity; Brazos; Colorado; Guadaloupe; Neuces; Rio Grande.

3. THOSE WHICH FLOW INTO THE MISSISSIPPI FROM THE EAST—Wisconsin; Rock; Illinois; Ohio; Yazoo.

FROM THE WEST—St. Peter's; Des Moines; Missouri; St. Francis; Arkansas; Red.

5. THOSE WHICH FLOW INTO THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA AND PACIFIC—Rio Colorado; Rio Gila; Rio de los Americanos; Sacramento; Columbia.

States.—Boundaries and capital of each of the following: Maine; New Hampshire; Vermont; Massachusetts; Connecticut; Rhode Island; New York; New Jersey; Pennsylvania; Delaware; Maryland; District of Columbia; Virginia; North Carolina; South Carolina; Georgia; Florida; Alabama, Mississippi; Louisiana; Texas; Michigan; Ohio; Indiana; Kentucky; Tennessee; Arkansas; Illinois; Missouri; Iowa; Wisconsin; California, (?)

Territories.—Boundaries of each of the following: Minesota; Nebraska; Missouri; Indian; Oregon; Utah, (?); New Mexico.

[begin surface 206] 30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Emigration of Roger Williams to Rhode Island.

Lesson XXIII... History of the United States.

1. Origin of the United States.—The United States had their origin in thirteen English colonies, which combined, in 1775, against the mother country, and, after a war of eight years, achieved their independence. The first overt act of this war was the battle of Lexington—a skirmish between the people of Lexington and Concord, in Massachusetts, and the British troops stationed at Boston, who marched to these places to destroy some military stores. The war which followed, and the various acts connected with it, are called, in American history, the Revolution.

2. Discoveries and Settlements of the Northmen.—It is generally believed that about the year 1000 A. D., certain maritime adventurers from Norway and Sweden, called Northmen, discovered the coasts of North America, and made settlements in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. These were, however, abandoned after two or three years, and were never known in Europe, or were entirely forgotten, in the time of Columbus.

3. Modern Discoveries.—In the year 1498, Sebastian Cabot, an Italian, in the employ of England, discovered Virginia. In 1524, Verrazani, also an Italian, sent out by France, discovered the coast of North Carolina. Here he landed, and had some interviews with the natives. He landed also near New York and at Newport. In 1528, Narvaez, a Spaniard, discovered and took possession of Florida, in behalf of the king of Spain. The Hudson river was discovered in 1609, by Henry Hudson, an English navigator, sent hither by some Dutch speculators.

4. Settlements.—Various attempts were made to effect settlements in this quarter, but they all proved unsuccessful till 1607. At that time, about 100 persons arrived from England, and founded the colony of Virginia. This was the first English settlement within the present United States. New York was settled by the Dutch in 1614; Massachusetts by the Puritans, in 1620; Rhode Island by Roger Williams, in 1636; and Connecticut about the same time. Georgia, the last of the thirteen colonies, was settled in 1732. The particular history of each of these will be found under their several heads.

5. Foundation of the Settlements.—The foundation of these English settlements was a claim made by King James I. of England, founded upon the discoveries of Sebastian Cabot and others, to the whole territory from Halifax to Florida. The settlement of the Dutch at New York was deemed a violation of this right, and accordingly that colony was taken by the British in 1664, and remained in their possession, excepting for a short space in 1673.

6. The French and Indian War.—It will be remembered that the French had possessed themselves of the whole country from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes. Their colonies here were very important, and they began to extend them southward, so as to occupy the great valley of the Mississippi. This roused the jealousy of the English, and in 1754 a war broke out, which was chiefly carried on along the boundary, between the French and English settlements. For several years, the contest was fierce and bloody. Both parties employed Indian warriors, who inflicted the most terrible barbarities upon the people along the northern borders of Maine, New Hampshire, and New York. Hundreds of villages were laid in ashes, and thousands were killed or carried into captivity. Many were subjected to the most cruel tortures.

7. Surrender of the French Colonies.—At length, in the year 1759, the English, under the command of Gen. Wolfe, scaled the rocky hights of Quebec at night, and the next day captured that city, after a bloody conflict with the French army. Soon after, the other portions of the country submitted, and, by the peace of 1763, the French possessions in North America were finally ceded to the British. Thus they became possessed of the greater part of that immense territory now called British America.

8. Causes of the Revolution.—About the year 1764, the British government began to impose severe and oppressive taxes upon the English colonies. The people remonstrated, and sent petitions both to the parliament and king, but without effect. As the people grew restless,

LESSON XXIII. 1. What of the origin of the United States? Battle of Lexington? The Revolution? 2. What of the discoveries and settlements of the Northmen? 3. More modern discoveries? 4. What of settlements? 5. Foundation of these settlements? 6. What of the old French and Indian war? 7. Surrender of the French colonies? 8. What of the causes of the Revolution? 9. What of throwing

[begin surface 207] HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 31 Throwing over the Tea. Image of the Boston Tea Party. [begin surface 208]

OUR COUNTRY.—A cotemporary has discovered that the greatest cataract in the world is the Falls of Niagara, where the waters accumulate from the great upper lakes, forming a river three quarters of a mile in width, are suddenly contracted, and plunging over the rocks in two columns, to the depth of one hundred and sixty feet. The greatest cave in the world is the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, where one can make a voyage on the waters of a substerranean​ river and catch fish without eyes. The greatest river in the world is the Mississippi, four thousand one hundred miles in length Its name is derived from an Indian word meaning "the father of waters." The largest valley in the world is the valley of the Mississippi. It contains five hundred thousand square miles, and is one of the most prolific regions on the globe. The largest lake in the world is Lake Superior, four hundred and thirty miles long. The greatest natural bridge in the world is that over Cedar Creek, in Virginia. It extends across a chasm eighty feet in width and two hundred and fifty feet deep, at the bottom of which a creek flows. The greatest solid mass of iron in the world is the iron mountain in Missouri. It is three hundred and fifty feet high, and two miles in circuit. The longest railroad in the world is the Central railroad of Illinois, which is seven hundred and thirty-one miles long—cost fifteen millions of dollars. The greatest number of miles of railroad, in proportion to its surface, of any country in the world is in Massachusetts, which has over one mile to every square mile of its area. The greatest number of clocks manufactured in the world is turned out by the small state of Connecticut. The largest number of whale ships in the world are sent out by Nantucket and New Bedford. The greatest grain port in the world is Chicago. The largest acqueduct​ in the world is the Croton acqueduct​ in New York. It is forty and a half miles long, and cost twelve and a half millions of dollars.

especially in Massachusetts, troops were sent over to keep them in order. In 1770, some of these being insulted in the streets of Boston, fired upon the populace, and killed and wounded several of them. The greatest excitement followed.

9. Throwing over the Tea, &c.—In 1773, the people being angry at the tax imposed upon tea, refused to let that article be landed from the British ships. In Boston, a party of men, disguised as Indians, went on board some vessels in the harbor, and emptied 340 chests into the water. The port of Boston was now closed by the British parliament. This act soon brought on a crisis. The assemblies of several of the colonies prepared for war, and a large British force in Boston, commanded by Gen. Gage, began to throw up fortifications, and prepare for defence.

10. Events of 1775.—On the 18th of April of this year, Gen. Gage dispatched 800 men to destroy some military stores at Concord, 16 miles from Boston. On their way, they met some of the people in arms at Lexington, fired upon them, and killed and wounded several. They then proceeded to Concord; but very soon the people began to fire upon them from behind the houses and fences along the road. They retreated, but 300 were killed and wounded. The news of this event, called the Battle of Lexington, spread rapidly over the country, and the people came thronging to the vicinity of Boston, where they soon amounted to several thousands. Taking possession of a hill in Charleston, on the night of the 16th of June, they threw up intrenchments, and the next morning boldly faced the British army in Boston. The latter speedily began an attack, and a fierce and bloody engagement followed. The Americans were at length obliged to retreat, for want of ammunition; but the British lost 1000 men in killed and wounded, while the American loss was less than half that number. Such was the famous Battle of Bunker Hill. Other interesting events speedily followed. Congress had assembled at Philadelphia, and now appointed George Washington commander of the American forces. He reached Cambridge, near Boston, the 12th July, where he found 14,000 Americans in arms, of whom he took the command.

11. Events of 1776.—In March, Washington got possession of Dorchester Heights, which commanded the city of Boston, together with the harbor. The British troops were accordingly forced to retire on the 17th June, taking with them 1500 American families, who were opposed to the revolution, and loyal to the king of England. On the 4th July, Congress made a formal Declaration of Independence, which was hailed with joy by the people at large. On the 27th August was fought the Battle of Long Island, in which the Americans were defeated, with the loss of 1000 men. In consequence, Washington was obliged to leave New York, which was immediately occupied by the British, and held by them till the close of the war. Toward the end of the year, the American cause seemed almost desperate; but the hopes of the country were revived by two brilliant victories in New Jersey, achieved by Washington, called the Battles of Trenton and Princeton.

12. Events of 1777.—At this period, the war raged over the whole country. On the 26th September, the British entered Philadelphia, after several severe battles. On the 8th October, Gen. Burgoyne, who was advancing from Canada, was compelled to surrender, with his whole army of 6000 men, to the American general, Gates, after obstinate engagements at Stillwater and Saratoga. This important victory revived the hopes of the country, and led other nations to expect the success of our arms.

13. Events of 1778.—In February of this year, France acknowledged the independence of the United States, and soon after sent troops and ships to our aid. On the 18th June, the British retreated from Philadelphia toward New York; but being overtaken by Washington at Monmouth, on the 28th, a severe engagement followed, in which the enemy suffered considerable loss.

14. Events of 1779.—During this year, the war was conducted on an extended scale. At the north, the British

over the tea at Boston? 10. Events of 1775? 11. Principal events of 1776? 12. Principal events of 1777? 13. Events of 1778?

[begin surface 209] 32 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

troops were chiefly occupied in burning towns and villages, and other petty enterprises. At the south, in Georgia and Carolina, various actions took place, but none of a decisive character. The Indians in Western New York, called the Six Nations, having made themselves very troublesome, were attacked by Gen. Sullivan. Forty villages were burnt, and 150,000 bushels of corn were destroyed. By these means, these savages were reduced to a state of submission. The French fleet, under Count d'Estaing, made various movements at sea, but with no special advantage to the American cause. Spain declared war against Great Britain, and, united with France, made most formidable demonstrations against that country. The English, however, met the emergency with extraordinary energy, and seemed fully equal to the crisis.

15. Events of 1780.—This was a year of important and stirring occurrences. The British army was largely increased, and thus enabled to carry on its operations with great vigor. Gen. Clinton, leaving New York for the command of the southern army, laid siege to Charleston, defended by Gen. Lincoln, and captured that city, May 12th. The war in the south was actively sustained by bands of American patriots, under Sumter, Marion, and others; but defeat and disappointment attended our cause. At this gloomy period, Benedict Arnold, a general who had fought bravely in our service, having the command of a strong fort at West Point, on the Hudson river, turned traitor to his country, and sought to deliver it into the hands of the British. The plot was discovered, and Arnold fled. He received about 50,000 dollars and a General's commission from the British, for his treason; but shame and ignominy attended him ever after. Even the British hated and despised him. Major André, a brave young Englishman, who negotiated the business with Arnold, was taken and executed as a spy. On the whole, the year 1780 may be regarded as the gloomiest and most disheartening year of the Revolutionary War.

16. Events of 1781.—Early in this year, the prospects of our country brightened. Gen. Greene, at the head of our southern forces, performed a series of remarkable manœuvres, very annoying and destructive to the enemy. At last, Gen. Cornwallis, the British commander, moved northward, and took his station at Yorktown, in Virginia. Washington, with the northern army, suddenly marched southward, in conjunction with a large body of French troops. Cornwallis was speedily encompassed by these forces and the French fleet under the Count de Grasse. Thus hemmed in on all sides, the British general made a brave defence; but on the 19th October, finding his redoubts demolished, and every hope of retreat cut off, he surrendered with his whole army of 7000 men. This event was decisive of the war, for the British people had become weary of the contest, and the government felt the necessity of putting an end to a struggle which had cost them immense blood and treasure, and now offered little hope of success.

17. Events of 1782–3.—After the surrender of Cornwallis, there was little fighting on either side. In November, 1782, preliminary articles were signed at Paris between the agents of Great Britain and America; and on the 3d September of the same year, a definite treaty of peace was made between England, France, Spain, Holland, and the United States; the latter being now recognized as a free, sovereign, and independent nation.

18. The Constitution—1783 to 1789.—During the war, Congress had been constantly in session. This body consisted of delegates from the several states. They acted under a constitution, called the Articles of Confederation. When the war was over, and new interests sprung up, this system was found imperfect and insufficient. A convention was therefore called, which met at Philadelphia, in May, 1787, and, after a session of four months, they framed and recommended to the people the present excellent Constitution. This was adopted by a majority of the states, and under it, George Washington was elected first President of the Union.

19. Washington's Administration—1789 to 1797.—The first Congress under the new constitution met at New York on the 4th March, 1789, and on the 30th April, Washington took the prescribed oath of office. The new government went at once into easy and successful operation. Washington displayed, as president, more fully those great virtues and abilities which had marked his military life, and he was consequently re-elected at the end of four years. During his administration, the restless Indians along our borders were reduced to submission, treaties were formed with foreign nations, the machinery of our government was organized and perfected, and society at large, emerging from the state of poverty, anxiety, and chaos induced by the war, was brought to a state of order, prosperity, and peace. The love and pride of country, called patriotism, grew up under the fostering care of Washington, and it has continued, undiminished, to the present day.

20. Adams' Administration—1797 to 1801.—John Adams, of Quincy, Mass., a lawyer of great ability, a member of the Continental Congress, and an able and eloquent supporter of the American cause through the whole Revolution, was elected president, and took the oath of office, March 4th, 1797. The French Revolution had broken out the same year that Washington became president. It produced immense excitement throughout the civilized world; and as the French had aided us in our struggle for liberty, the people of this country ardently sympathized with a movement which seemed to promise the blessings of liberty to France. But the revolution there took an unfortunate turn; bad men seized the power, and our own country experienced serious embarrassments from that quarter. A war seemed inevitable, and preparations for it were made by Congress; but, happily, the crisis passed without a resort to arms. In December, 1799, after a short illness, Washington died, and the whole country mourned for him. He is still remembered under the endearing title of the Father of his Country. In the year 1800, the seat of government was removed from Philadelphia to Washington, which has since been the capital of the United States.

21. Jefferson's Administration—1801 to 1809.—Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, who had been a leader in the Revolution, and vice-president under Mr. Adams, was elected president, and took the oath of office, March 4, 1801. In April, 1803, an immense territory, called Louisiana, was purchased of France for $15,000,000. In July, 1804, Gen. Alexander Hamilton, of New York, was killed, in a duel, by Col. Burr, also of that city. Both these men

14. Events of 1779? 15. Events of 1780? 16. Events of 1781? 17. Events of 1782–3? 18. What of Congress? The Confederation? The present constitution? 19. What of Washington's administration? 20. Adams' administration? 21. What of Jeffer-